Download Global Competency Thesis - DU Portfolio

Integrated Project
For
Bachelor of Arts
Global Studies
Tina M. Covey
University of Denver University College
August 13, 2015
Faculty: Evans Mehew
Director: John Hill, PhD
Dean: Michael J. McGuire, MLS
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Abstract
Twenty-first century citizens are no longer living in a world comprised of isolated nation states
separated by geography and culture. Technological advances have precipitated worldwide
connectivity through faster, cheaper travel, interdependent finances and economies, and
instantaneous communication and information access. Globalization requires modernizing
populations comprised of world cultures shaped by core beliefs and past conflicts to develop
evolving understanding and cooperation. Achieving success while advancing individual and
societal goals requires awareness of disparate cultures and peoples uniquely shaped by
complex, composite histories. Only through educated collaboration will the world’s civilizations
thrive, conquering ongoing, multifaceted, global challenges. This project will provide evidence
that comprehensive global competency can only be achieved through the increase of
knowledge in world conflicts and belief systems.
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Table of Contents
Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………….………ii
Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….................1
Research Approach……………………………….……………………………………………….………………………….………5
Globalization………………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………….……9
World Religions…………………..……………………………………………………………………………………………………14
World Conflicts……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……….23
Global Interconnectivity………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…29
Global Studies Education………………………………….…………………………………………………………….…….…35
Addressing Global Issues……………….……...…………………………………………………………………………….….40
Solutions……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……..….45
Project Discussion………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………..47
Executive Summary………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………...50
References………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…...54
Appendix 1…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…58
1
Introduction
Globalization is an idea increasingly present in the public discourse and news topics
today. But it is likely that few outside of the circle directly engaged in modern global leadership
understand the extent of globalization’s reach or impact in terms of cross propagation of global
issues. Advances within communication, technology, trade, finance and transportation have
made disparate worldwide cultures more fully interwoven, necessitating increased crosscultural communication and cooperation. For those in a globalized career or field of study it has
become essential to their success to pursue a comprehensive base-knowledge of all subjects
directly involved in their specific field of expertise. Broad topical areas impacted by
globalization include but are not limited to: politics and diplomacy, economics and trade,
finance, the environment, languages, cultures and value systems. A pursuit of study within any
of these fields generally illuminates just one particular aspect of global issues; however none
singularly tie all others together more comprehensively than what is achieved by the inclusion
of the histories of world conflicts and world belief systems. These two specific topics directly
interconnect and influence all other subjects within the arena of global studies. No aspect of
the current state of globalization has remained unaffected by national and international
conflicts or by the founding principles and belief systems upon which today’s societies are
fundamentally constructed.
As evidenced within the media, recent global events are fraught with examples this
interconnectivity including: the ongoing Global War on Terrorism, the recent widespread Arab
Spring, sweeping economic shifts in power and the renewed tensions between Eastern Bloc
States of the former Soviet Union. History too is littered with the fallout of long-standing
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religious rivalries— costs paid still today by many modern nation-states. Culturally ingrained
ideas and motivations that stem from a long, troubled history of conflict with a political,
economic or religious rival are reflected in how every aspect of a society is established and
operated by an indigenous people (Hayden et. al 2015). Likewise, long-resolved conflicts remain
embedded within the cultural memory of a people as part of their self-identifying heritage.
These basic facts must first be accepted and assimilated in order to then move to a broader
understanding of and true empathy for a society— an essential prerequisite to any global
collaborative endeavor. Global competency gained through either experiential knowledge or
formal higher education is necessary to be globally competitive and effective in the 21st
century. Without a cornerstone of understanding in the areas of world conflicts and belief
systems, true appreciation for all other fields of global study will be limited. It is for these
reasons that a comprehensive global competency can only be achieved by the inclusion of a
knowledge of world conflicts and belief systems.
Given the nature of rising worldwide conflict and unrest—exacerbating ethnic, cultural
dissention and insensitivity, which in turn magnifies economic and financial repercussions, in
the 21st century more than ever it is crucial that global competence, cultural sensitivity and
global education take center stage of public discourse. This need is measurable: “The United
States falls short on virtually all indicators of international knowledge, awareness, and
competence. In a National Geographic-Roper (2006) poll of geographic knowledge among
young adults in nine countries, Americans finished next to last. Fewer than 25 percent of the
Americans surveyed could name four countries that acknowledge having nuclear weapons”
(NASULGC 2004). The world has increasingly experienced disenfranchised religious extremists
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turning to terrorism; many aware global citizens fear that short-sighted foreign policies toward
other nation state governments are being implemented which only serve to magnify rather
than mitigate the causes for the violence. If our global political, multinational corporate and
non-governmental organizational leaders fail to develop and exercise educated hindsight and
foresight into cultural, political and social entities inextricably intertwined through
globalization, thereby gaining a profound awareness of the complexities of cultural plurality, we
can expect to experience increasing cultural isolation, economic obstruction, religious
radicalization and violent conflict.
In order to recognize and achieve global competency, many questions must first be
answered. What are some examples within modern history that demonstrate how conflicts and
religions have directly impacted other global studies subject areas? Is there an existing
accepted opinion within the field of international studies regarding a basic knowledge of world
conflicts and religions and their influence upon globalization, current world events and other
areas within global studies? Four major claims will be presented to prove the thesis and
warrant recommendations for solutions and calls for further research.
The cost of not rectifying shortfalls in global competency will be borne by both formal
and informal students of global studies as well as by all those both directly and indirectly
involved in global industrial or cultural exchange. Possessing only a lower level or no level of
competency will cause global citizens to fail to understand the universal yet disparate
underlying critical variables within and among global cultures. The consequence of this failure is
the inaccurate filtration of individual perspectives of others, erroneously-based global decisions
made, and ongoing and unsolved and potentially greatly exacerbated global challenges—all
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caused by this shortfall in cross-cultural understanding and cooperation. If we do not educate
ourselves and new generations on the oft-linked histories of conflict and religion, we as a world
population will never overcome these flaws, bond over our likenesses or transcend our
differences.
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Research Approach
Researching a project involving the subject of global studies inherently approaches a
daunting scale. In order to establish the thesis that world conflicts and belief systems impact all
other topics within global studies, the author first needed to establish that there exists a
shortfall in current global competency and then hypothesize how best to correct that gap. It
was important to the author to limit the topic to the specific areas of religion and conflict,
viewing these two areas more than any other to cross all boundaries of human existence.
The critical precursor to developing the claims that were made was to first define the
fundamental key terms to which were referred throughout the report. Globalization, global
competency, religion, belief systems, and conflict—all are terms used liberally within current
daily language; yet a critical building block to proving the thesis was that a common
understanding of the generally accepted interpretations and historical contexts first be fully
established. Focus was placed on understanding the modern history of globalization, religion
and conflict, as well as the need for and scope of global competency. What this report is not
doing: even while limiting the range of this study of world religions and world conflicts in the
previous two thousand years—which is commonly considered the modern era, a
comprehensive evaluation of these topics is far beyond the scope of this project. Instead, the
background review will be limited to only the basic definitions and framework of each topic-- as
well as select specific examples— necessary to substantiate the thesis.
Linkages between conflict, religion and all other areas of global studies were established
and exemplified in the first of four primary claims. Second, while exploring examples of
indigenous cultures which have been directly affected by religion and conflict is potentially an
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overwhelming stand-alone topic, it was important that this next be understood to further
validate the thesis. Much of this information was found within texts and scholarly resources
produced within the anthropology, world history, theological and peace and security fields.
These first two claim discussions reflected the bulk of the case that global competency
fundamentally requires a basic knowledge of world religion and conflicts if one is to understand
all other areas of global studies. The remaining two claim arguments focused first upon sources
and conditions of current global studies education and next on the dependence of effective
global solutions upon global competency—both indispensable if we are to hold any hope of
resolving or mitigating current ongoing global issues. Finally, recommended solutions were
summarized as made evident throughout the proof of the claims.
Addressing the third claim regarding education, the author looked for a connection to
the education of future globally competent leaders through formal higher education programs
inclusive of world conflicts and belief systems. Existing successful university-level global studies
programs in the U.S. were identified to determine what is currently being implemented. And
evidence was found to support the claim. Existing university programs are currently
implementing this broader and more inclusive approach to global competency education.
Within these programs it is being recognized that conflict and belief systems pervade and
influence every aspect of global cultures—even if only or often invisibly from behind the scenes
of the societal system or from deep under the skin of the people today (Brustein 2007,
Duckworth 2015).
Regarding the final claim— that effective global solutions are directly dependent upon
global competency fostered through knowledge inclusive of world conflicts and belief systems,
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the primary research question was whether scholars within the field of global affairs have
formed a consensus or not to that effect. Much of the data sought came from scholarly journals
and papers as well as recognized institutions and organizations in the field. Findings largely
consisted of opinions and applied examples of how the basic understanding of conflicts and
belief systems is expected of those possessing global competence. International and
governmental organizations and expert academic sources also lent the greatest credibility to
this topic, as the acknowledged experts leading global practices and policy-writing and finding
solutions to global challenges today (Hey 2004, Quintana 2014).
Originally the initial starting point for the thesis was the University College at University
of Denver’s Global Studies Bachelor of Arts Completion Program (BACP) curriculum, where all
required coursework was reviewed by the author in order to extract from key global subject
areas demonstrated linkages to those contained within the thesis topic (University of Denver
2015). It was important that this direct connection be made between religions, conflicts and the
global studies degree program in a specific way and also demonstrate a clear understanding of
the important elements encompassed within the spectrum of global studies. It was intend that
the reader understand why and how world conflicts and belief systems are important in terms
of the direct influence they have on cultures today— even as the world becomes more
modernized and globalized.
Considerable primary, secondary and even tertiary research was conducted for the
project— first for definitional evidence and then for evidence of established opinions within the
global studies community. Statistical information to support the claims was mined throughout
the project. As the thesis claims were developed, new research questions continued to emerge.
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While this project report in no way definitively resolves the call for increased global
competency through the claim of deeper knowledge of religions and conflict, it accomplishes
the intended result of starting the conversation for further research and development in the
future. The project left the author assured of the stated need for a requisite base knowledge of
the history of global conflicts and religious belief systems to become globally competent.
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Globalization
In order to make a case for global competency and its dependence upon a mastery of
numerous subjects—specifically including religions and conflicts, we must first define key terms
of the discussion. Globalization and global competency are at the forefront of this
advancement. Particularly in the West, contemporary conversations across industries and fields
of study invariably result even indirectly in approaching of the issue of globalization, the nature
of global citizenry, and the effects of global issues upon one another. These terms have become
so commonly used that it is nearly assumed—quite erroneously, that they are universally
understood.
By the author’s own edification, globalization is defined as the global expansion of
industry, technology and culture across borders and boundaries to connect people, places,
trade, finance, communication and nations. Globalization is characterized as either political,
economic or social, as deemed by: global connectivity, integration and interdependence in the
economic, social, technological, cultural, political, and ecological spheres (ETH 2015).
Today, globalization facilitates faster-than-ever-before modes of travel, instantaneous
communication and financial exchange, worldwide trade, and a level of cultural exchange such
as never before seen in world history. While globalization brings near-limitless possibilities for
human exchange, it also brings drawbacks and as such, tremendous responsibility. So what
does it mean for a person to live in a globalized world? One must become a global citizen with a
measurable level of global competency. First, global citizenship entails adoption of views and
actions that reflect a broader perspective than one’s own, the ability to observe the world’s
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realities and power relations and make effective evaluations and comparisons, and to connect
and belong across divisions and diversity (Noddings 2005, 22-23).
Next, global competency has been commonly defined in various ways yet all with
several central components. One definition provided by the National Association of State
Universities and Land Grant Colleges (NASULGC)’s Task Force on International Education refers
to global competence as the ability “not only to contribute to knowledge, but also to
comprehend, analyze, and evaluate its meaning in the context of an increasingly globalized
world” (NASULGC, 2004).The NASULGC is the oldest higher education association, comprising
200+ American public, land grant and tribal colleges and universities, while also partnering with
the American Council on Education. A second definition— this one by Ron Moffatt, Director of
the San Diego State University International Student Center, states that global competency is “a
grasp of global systems, global issues, the dynamics of how things are interrelated and
interconnected in the world, and how society can best address global issues” (Language Corps
2015). And finally, the National Education Association defines global competence as:
The acquisition of in-depth knowledge and understanding
of international issues, an appreciation of and ability to learn and
work with people from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds,
proficiency in a foreign language, and skills to function productively
in an interdependent world community. This definition contains
four basic elements: International awareness, Appreciation of
cultural diversity, Proficiency in foreign languages, Competitive
skills (NEA 2015).
Yet according to Darla K. Deardorff, Director of Duke University’s International Education
Administrators Association, the additional skills “to listen, observe and evaluate, analyze,
interpret, and relate” come into critical play as well. (Language Corps 2015) Global competency
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is a complex and evolving concept that requires a mastery of many areas of study and skill,
which is precisely why a wide net must be cast to encompass many global topics—including
world religions and world conflicts.
Globalization is not a creation of the 21st Century; an argument can genuinely be made
that the concept of globalization began with Marco Polo along the Silk Road, or earlier with the
ancient Egyptians trading along the Red Sea and the Mediterranean. In the modern era,
globalization began most notably in the 18th and 19th Centuries as European nations began to
colonize and trade on a large scale throughout the world. The development of great fleets of
ships by the Spanish and others of Western Europe encouraged travel at great distances— the
first time in history that the globe began to shrink for mankind. Advances in communication
technology created new opportunities for exchange between cultures, leading to larger-scale
systemized trade and finance. Modern globalization has been evolutionary, marked by periodic
plateaus and growth spurts.
In terms of its principle Influences upon religion, history demonstrates that globalization
particularly over the past two centuries had brought: international trade to China, Christianity
to Africa, and democracy to Russia and parts of the Middle East (Ellwood 1992). But specifically
religiously speaking, globalization can be credited with additionally bringing Islam, Hinduism,
Buddhism and several East Asian belief systems to adoption across the globe (Ellwood 1992).
Since the first colonization of what would eventually become the United States, religious
expression in America has expanded to now likely reflect nearly every recognized religion and
belief system in existence on the globe today (see Table 3). Efforts to accurately measure the
exact global demographics pertaining to religious affiliation have proven nearly impossible to
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accomplish due to the very nature of the issue of self-identification and affiliation. However a
survey of “World Religious Beliefs/Non-Beliefs by Adherents, 1910-2010” (see Table 3) was
conducted by the Institute on Culture, Religion and World Affairs. At Boston University, which
approaches proximity (Johnson and Grim 2011). But it is commonly understood today that
through cheaper and faster travel, instantaneous digital communication and internationalized
trade and finance, once disparate religions and cultures have been brought into direct and
immediate daily contact throughout the world.
And in terms of its principle influences upon conflict, globalization additionally has
illuminated and by some accounts potentially further heightened ceaseless war in the Middle
East, resumed unrest in parts of Eastern Europe and Africa, and sweeping financial catastrophe
from Greece to Thailand to the U.S.—and nearly everywhere in between. Likewise, there are
also principle values related to conflicts and religion linked with globalization:
Capital accumulation remains the primary organizing principle that
influences how nation-states interact with one another, and how
people within various locations are situated in relation to labor and
capital. While much of the celebratory literature on globalization
has hailed the developments of a transnational identity and the
benefits accrued to those of privilege…poverty has been
restructured and exacerbated by a globally networked society as
well, and along very familiar lines (Beasley-Murray, 2002). Our
world may now be post-colonial, but, as Williams and Chrisman
(1996) have reminded us, it is not post-imperial. Religion often
becomes a point of connection and distinction in this context,
providing comfort and familiarity among immigrant communities,
but at the same time exacerbating tensions. Identification with
religion is often viewed by the majority as a disruptive threat to the
nation-state (Horsfield 2004, 8).
Clearly, conflict does not necessarily refer exclusively to armed hostilities; it has also
manifested itself in the 21st Century as economic destruction of competitors, fractured political
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affiliations, interrupted communication, information flow and travel and religious and social
oppression.
We in the West often consider globalization—like democracy, freedom, and pursuit of
wealth and prosperity—to be a universally adopted concept; but it is not. And the relationship
between globalization, religion and conflict is circular, not linear. To illustrate, consider the
revolutionary uprising in Egypt beginning in 2011: religion played into the politics of the
conflict, and because of globalized communication, it was all broadcast live to the world, in turn
affecting global politics, trade, finance and religion. As much as globalization brought religion
and conflict to disparate nation states, religion and conflict also brought globalization. This is
critical to understand, but as long as we approach the world exclusively with our own Western
worldview, we will by definition exclude those who do not share our views and values, and
historically— invariably, those peoples and cultures whose belief systems and conflicts we have
consistently failed to form lasting ties with or even merely understood or respected.
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World Religions
The word “religion” conjures for each of us a different yet distinct image of its meaning
and manifestation in the world today. It may not be difficult to accept the claim that world
religions are inextricably linked to all other areas of global studies, or that some manifestation
of a belief or value system is the basis for all culture. “From the earliest times, religion has
provided human beings with a sense of purpose, meaning, order, belonging, psychological wellbeing and destiny. It has been a major, if not the major determinant of human behavior since
the dawn of human consciousness” (GSU 2006, 1). What may prove more elusive for most is a
comprehensive understanding of the vast spiritual ideology encompassed in “religion” or
“belief systems”? Identifying the definitions and structures of religion comprises the necessarily
most substantive section of this report.
If one hundred people were asked what meaning they would attribute to religion or
belief systems, they would provide one hundred different responses. Religions are commonly
characterized using descriptive words such as “organized”, “major”, “formal”, “traditional”,
“orthodox”, “fundamentalist”, “extremist”, and “mono” or “polytheistic”. Tens of thousands of
published works on the subject might not have been written and thousands of years of
religiously motivated wars may not have transpired if religion were not so complex and
ambiguous. Scholars throughout history and still today have disputed what exactly is
encompassed under the umbrella term “religion”. Maddox (2015, 190) imparts within his
research that scholars have defined religion “almost exclusively in terms of individual religious
commitments”; however the author of this report disagrees, believing the definition to be more
broad. A better definition originates from the work of Horsfield (2004, 203)—
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Greil and Robbins argue that: religion is not an entity but rather a
category of discourse whose precise meaning and implications are
continually being negotiated in the course of social interaction.
Religion from this perspective is not a concrete ‘thing’ which may
be either present or absent in a society, but rather an idiom, a way
of speaking about and categorizing actors’ experience (Greil and
Robbins, 1994 p. 6).
There continues to be dissention among scholars on this issue, as exemplified by the opinion of
others of Horsfield’s (2004, 203) referenced scholars:
Hoover specifically objects that this is still a distorting ‘essentialism’
because it is based on a fixed prior conception of what is or is not
religious and does not allow the observer to let the cultural group
say what it thinks is religious. Hoover (2002a) follows R.S. Warner
in affirming that, in order to capture the breath and complexity of
the contemporary religious experience, the definitions of what
religion is must be based on what is expressed and experienced,
not what is ascribed by hegemonic cultures (Warner 1993).
This is a critically distinguishing perspective to take in light of the project’s thesis, because in
order to understand that world religions directly impact all areas of global studies and therefore
must be understood to gain global competency, one must step out of a prescribed world view
into another. “All societies have ways of drawing a map describing different categories in order
to make sense of reality and communicate with each other about this reality. It is important to
‘get inside’ this sense-making and see the world from that perspective” (Horsfield 2004, 203).
The purpose of considering the meaningful definitions of “religion” and “belief systems”
is not to master such an elusive subject, but to precisely highlight that it IS in fact extremely
challenging to understand— which is why we must make at least a minimal attempt to do so if
we are to even approach global competency. “Religion is not just a subjective mood; it is also a
spelling out in concrete expressions that bring to life in the visible, physical world the
nonphysical realities that are subjectively felt” (Ellwood 1992, 7). The various religions are
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experiential vehicles that have always created a worldview for the individual, developed in
response to an inherent need to seek answers to universal questions asked by all humans (GSU
2006, x). To further explain the term “worldview”, it is the compilation of one’s identity and
behavior, fused with one’s relationship to the surrounding environment and individual
interpretation of life’s circumstances (GSU 2006, xi).
To create a full illustration of religion and belief systems, a comprehensive study would
encompass world history beyond the scope of this report. Instead, that period to which will be
referred is considered the modern era— relatively coinciding with the birth of the great
religions known worldwide today. As Ellwood 1992) elaborates, early in modern history
mankind was transitioning from agricultural, pagan and polytheistic religions to monotheistic
systems, while simultaneously evolving civilizations into kingdoms, and then into nationstates— while imperialism became the early manifestation of globalization. As state powers
spread throughout the globe making gains politically, militarily, and trade and finance through
the allocation of resources, religions were also spread to foreign shores globally. “It is
interesting that out of the hundreds of thousands of years humanity has lived on this earth, all
the major religious founders have lived within a span of less than two millennia – between
Moses in the thirteenth century B.C.E. and Muhammad in the seventh century C.E” (Ellwood
1992, 17). There are additional important but less popularly followed belief systems that will
not be included within this discussion; however, it should be understood that they also exist, in
order to acknowledge that belief systems are not narrowly categorical, simple or transparent to
quantify. In an attempt to simplify the discussion of religions and belief systems, some
established basic framework must first be explained. These criteria are not all-inclusive of
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religion because as stated before, the concept and reality is far too broad and indeterminate for
such a possibility.
Religions are a form of collectivism followed by people with common language, culture
and worldviews— a relationship which is quite circular in nature, as the members in turn adopt
each of these features from their shared religion. As with any human community, Ellwood
(1992) explains that religions are formed into organizations by type: the more common and
populous church type—as seen in most major religions, and what is referred to as the
withdrawal group type— populated by marginal, factional and “cult” religions, which will not be
examined for this project.
The church, in this sense, is the broadly based religion that
represents the normative spiritual values of a society and in which
most people are involved by virtue of their membership in the
society—Hinduism in India or Catholicism in Spain. This is the faith
a person in a society belongs to if he or she has not made a selfconscious, deliberate choice to be something else. The church type
of structure is often a comprehensive system allowing for
individual variations and in practice not making extremely rigorous
demands on anyone (Ellwood 1992, 11).
Scholars and followers alike tend to speak of their religion in eternal terms, but the fact is,
religions have had to adapt over time throughout history to survive, or fade away. “Religious
institutions interact with other institutions in a given culture; religion changes social
experience; social experience changes religion. Every human being carries their own unique
spiritual DNA that ever so slightly reshapes “eternal traditions” into new forms” (GSU 2006, ix).
To say that all or most religions share similar fundamental values is a widely adopted
but wholly inaccurate assertion. While it is true that there are commonalities and threads of
“truth” running through all major religions, particularly in the West we must come to
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understand that much of what we identify as “religious” beliefs are solely from the perspective
of our own world view. Individual and collective people form ideas and adopt values, which in
turn are used as the basis for culture, society, and all institutions of civilization—including
religions. These fixtures of human existence give structure to what would otherwise be chaos—
a critical understanding that mankind developed when evolving from a nomadic to a societal
existence. Cultures were developed when people who shared similar values and goals gathered
and created forms of expression and means of accomplishment. Religions and belief systems
are broadly expressed in three ways: theoretical, practical and sociological (Ellwood 1992). The
theoretical refers to a religion’s dogma, scripture, fundamental beliefs and mythology. The
practical refers to the religion’s practices that members must perform or adhere to. And the
sociological refers to how exactly the religion is organized and behaves as a social entity both
internally and externally. “The fact that each of the world's religions has a history and
encompasses each of the three forms of religious expression means that they all have common
patterns. They usually ask and answer certain questions. All have a basic world view, ideas
about God or ultimate reality, ideas about the origin and destiny of the world and individual
humans, a revelation or authority or mediation between the ultimate and humankind,
standards about what is expected of humans—that is, patterns of worship, spiritual practices,
and ethics or behavior—and an institutional or sociological expression (Ellwood 1992, 19-20).
The fundamental values that make up religious beliefs continue to permeate society,
even as society has evolved over the centuries to one of increasing secularization a nineteenthcentury thesis which predicted that—
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With modernization, religion would fade to be replaced by
enlightenment rationality, science, scientific socialism, or some
blend. This would happen first in the ‘advanced’ societies, but, in
due course, in all, thanks to civilizations inexorable spread. But then
came the last two decades of the twentieth century. Only parts of
Europe followed the script. Resurgences of religion elsewhere—
and politically-assertive religion, at that—forced the secularization
thesis’s surviving proponents to reconsider their theory (Maddox
2015, 186).
Within the world’s current population of more than seven billion people, the best
figures that can be compiled suggest that approximately 90% of the world’s population claims
affiliation with or adherence to some form of religion or spiritual belief system (Appendix 1,
Table 3). However, as a byproduct of modernization and globalization, one theory suggests that
“In an increasingly complex and pluralistic world, most people are hesitant to restrict their
identity to any one religious belief system and tend to avoid ‘religion’ because it is perceived as
more constrictive” (Horsfield 2004, 201). Yet current evidence demonstrates that
secularization—or at least a reshaping of spirituality, is in fact still occurring— particularly in the
West. “The character of religion and religious practice in western countries has significantly
changed. One of those major changes has been a shift in religious exploration and practice
away from traditional religious institutions into the institutions of the commercial media
marketplace” (Horsfield 2004, 4). Likewise, religious authorities today are faced with decreasing
influence to shape social views on a myriad of issues such as abortion, divorce, and
homosexuality (Maddox 2015, 192).
What makes the different religions unique from one another and subsequently societies
and cultures is the application of founding beliefs within the religion upon their societal
institutions and functions.
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Each religion has its own set of polarized attitudes toward
acceptance or rejection of environing culture, toward the past and
present, toward ordinary as over against ecstatic consciousness. It
reflects, in other words, the great complexity and diversity of
human experience even within one tradition. What distinguishes
one religion from another is not only the unique founding and
formal doctrine of each, but also the particular way each sets up its
tensions and patterns—the particular points it lays out on its
compass. Certain areas of tension run through all religion. In
virtually all we find individuals and movements representing polar
positions. But the symbols and personalities and concrete historical
events that express these tensions in actual religion are manifoldly
varied (Ellwood 1992, 20-21).
In terms of the principle influences that religions and belief systems have upon
globalization, religion has reflected the best that man has achieved while conversely it has also
dwelled at the root of much of the worst that man has ever perpetrated. On the one hand, the
positive social and economic roles that organized religions have played in modern history
cannot be overlooked or overstated. All major religions have occupied the pinnacle position
within societies for humanitarianism and it is through this responsibility that they have directly
impacted and positively influenced world economies, the environment and the social welfare of
nation-states globally. Ironically, the greatest example of this is the Roman Catholic Church,
once the perpetrator of the Holy Crusades lasting hundreds of years during the Middle Ages.
“The Roman Catholic Church has represented one of the largest religious and social service
global systems throughout much of its history.” Claiming more than a billion followers, the
Church sponsors tens of thousands of community parishes, hospitals and care facilities, schools,
social service agencies and charities throughout the world, exemplifying “a potent force for
faith and service in the world” (Horsfield 2004 182).
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However, on the other hand, ongoing contemporary religious, political and social
conflicts appear to have a direct impact upon indigenous societies, nation states and the global
system as a whole—but especially when stemming from religious causes. Ethnic cleansing and
cultural genocide, minority religious oppression within theocracies, the Holocaust which
spanned Europe and Western Asia— all were conducted along political, geographic and
religious divisions in the suppression of religious beliefs or the expulsion of religious followers,
these examples all represent how mankind has woefully treated the “other” throughout history
but especially in just the last century.
One religious studies scholar has estimated that more wars have
been waged and more people injured, killed, captured, or missing
for religious reasons alone throughout the first and second
millennia than for political, geographical, and military reasons
(Kimball 2002, 156). Even if this is not completely accurate, a
convincing case can be made for its partial truth. Whenever war
reaches the point where it is waged as a holy cause, whatever the
original reasons for going to war, then , even to objective
observers, it might seem that religion and war are inextricably
linked, and maybe even inevitably. This inference, of course, is a
terrible mistake because at the heart of all religion is the promise
of reconciliation and peace (Nodding 2005, 96).
Religion and belief systems provide mankind with the lifeblood of culture and civilization
and in the estimation of this author, no other aspect of human existence possesses greater
influence upon the events and perspectives of our world. Our fundamental belief systems—
born of some form of human experiential force, is the source of our identity, our values, and
our thoughts, choices and actions. But because the many variations of religion and beliefs have
sculpted civilization in equally varied manifestations, inevitably mankind has suffered ongoing
conflict as a direct result. “On the global scene, whenever we mix fundamentalist and extremist
forms of religion with politics, geography, economics, and the military, we get something
22
volatile and lethal. Even a partial list of current-day religious-political conflicts is daunting in
terms of the obvious threats to human life” (Noddings 2005, 95).
23
World Conflicts
World conflict is a critical component of global competency that must be understood
beyond our own worldviews and value systems.
Traditionally, the conflicts presented in history and current events
– between peoples, states, and social groups – are presented as
facts and events, with little effort to examine the complex
underlying dynamics. Without an opportunity for structured and
critical learning about intergroup conflict, students often draw
their understanding from history’s victors. The lessons they often
learn include: group identities are fixed, conflict is usually zerosum, and violence and coercion are not only common but often
effective ways – maybe only ways – to deal with intergroup conflict
(Noddings 2005, 42).
It is not important to call attention to the entire history of world conflict— which is far too
lengthy for this project. What is important is to acknowledge that the concept of world conflict
is far more complex and convoluted than a reduction to mere facts and events; the effect upon
the people within the conflict is what must be studied and understood to garner
comprehensive global competency. Critical elements of conflict that must be analyzed include:
definition, elements, and methodologies including: traditional warfare, terrorism, cultural and
ethnic genocide, and displacement from home place; and specific effects including: collective
memory, and historical trauma.
For the purposes of this report, the term conflict is being narrowly defined as protracted
disagreement between global parties that results in confrontation involving violence upon
and/or damage to property, to the opposing party and to collateral others. Violent global
conflict since the beginning of the modern era has taken literally immeasurable tolls on
worldwide societies and nation states and only in the last century have human and economic
24
losses been more accurately—or first—counted (Appendix 1, Table 1). Global conflict is brought
about by the breakdown or total bypassing of diplomacy to further individual, cultural, societal
or state goals and interests. Within the context of the thesis of this project, it is important to
reflect upon the three key influences of war or conflict, which Noddings (2005, 129-130)
identified as: patriotism, propaganda and psychology. Patriotism calls upon the loyalty of
members of the nation state, society, culture, religion or other group identifier to protect and
defend what is possessed by one group and under attack by another. The shared values of the
group—often established by the common religion or belief system—are almost universally the
key motivator.
Next, propaganda is the manipulation of the minds of the people and the media to
influence in a certain way the beliefs and behaviors of both parties of the conflict, as well as
those of outside global observers. This also ties directly into the third element—psychology—
both intended and unintended, as well as immediate and lasting. Conflict always has an effect
upon the human psyche and upon the society in which it is perpetrated. But formal peace and
conflict studies have evaluated human psychology within the realm of conflict and have come
to learn that there is a lasting, almost permanent effect upon a people and a society from
conflict—even when buried in the long-distant past. Conflict resides within the cultural
mythology and social heritage of a people—gloriously if they were triumphant and bitterly if
they were vanquished. These three critical elements in some combination are present and
exploited in every world conflict—implemented by varying methods and to differing degrees by
all parties. These elements directly target the worldviews of the followers, the enemies, and the
observers— forever shaping beliefs and actions in all aspects of society and culture in the
25
present and for the future. This is an essential factor to grasp within the context of all other
areas of global studies—and necessary to achieving global competency.
A key attribute of conflict for this discussion is collective memory. Collective memory is
that which is shared by an entire people of a society that has become part of their historical
narrative—whether it is true or a convenient fiction crafted by a conqueror.
Conflicts driven by historical memory often feature clear conflict
narratives which tell the story of a particular group’s experience
and which often serve to justify the group’s violent actions during
the conflict. Typically, they present the enemy group as wholly to
blame and often feature enemy images which, at especially high
levels of conflict escalation, dehumanize and demonize the Other.
(Duckworth 2015, 170).
Conflict affects not just the societies and peoples of the participating parties, but in
today’s globalized environment, it spills over to the allies of each party, as well as to the
economies, financial systems and politics of the entire globe. Commerce, communication,
travel, the environment, humanitarian and even educational initiatives are directly impacted. It
is therefore without doubt essential to global citizenship that we understand how conflict has
been brought about, by learning the details of the conflicts from the first-person perspective—
its deep rooted and complex history between involved parties and its ongoing ramifications to
the world as a whole. Accepting and acknowledging that conflict remains deep within the
cultural DNA of affected people is the cornerstone to this understanding. The cultural heritage
of a people is wrapped up in its history, inclusive of past conflict—an unfortunate but
inescapable building block of all human history.
World conflict today has evolved to include a myriad of new forms in addition to the
traditional methods of violence, disruption and destruction. With the growing onset and
26
influence of globalization, conflict has expanded to include many indirect and yet deadlier
forms of warfare. Additionally now, with the advent of new technologies of the digital age,
cyber-attacks, exploitation of commerce, travel, and communication—especially media—and
manipulation of financial systems for nefarious purposes have all become the norm in world
conflict and warfare. Terrorism is not a newly invented form of warfare and yet in the last
century—and especially the last three decades—this method has increased exponentially in
use. It is essential that the root causes of and perspectives behind conflict be understood by
global citizens as we endeavor to effectively address universal global issues. “Particularly
violent and protracted conflicts involve elements of worldview, culture, and identity. Aspects of
identity such as ethnicity, religion, and nationality are often prominent in such conflicts.
(Duckworth 2015, 176).
Modern global conflicts continue to abound as familiar news narratives: civil wars and
genocide in Western Africa from the Sudan to the Congo; decades-long cross-border bloodshed
between Indian Hindus and Pakistani Muslims; centuries-old clashes between Shi’a and Sunni
Muslims; spreading radicalization and fundamentalism throughout the world; awakened
tensions between former Soviet Union independent nation states; and even reemerging,
escalating tensions between races here in the U.S. Each of these global conflicts—while often
isolated to regionalism—have effects that reach far beyond geographic borders and crossing all
fields of global issues.
The same solution that has historically mitigated conflict— ongoing direct contact
between cultures and societies, serves also as a double-edged sword, as it can also awaken or
exacerbate past conflicts and instigate new ones. Duckworth (2015, 178) theorizes that this
27
“contact hypothesis,” argues that “contact with unfamiliar groups makes us less likely to
stereotype them. Yet gaining more factual, three-dimensional views of especially those groups
whom one has historically been in conflict with is essential for de-escalation, preventing future
conflict, and for the narrative transformation that is our ultimate goal in conflicts driven by
traumatized collective memory”.
Another enduring consequence of conflict is historical trauma. This is characterized by
the memory and effects of a conflict spanning generations and therefore becoming part of the
collective memory of the people. How this is traditionally initiated by the victors and is
important to note because of the effect it has upon a people and all aspects of their culture.
“State ideological manipulation to ensure that a certain version of history is the one that
becomes the official record and thus gets handed down. Here is a key mechanism of the
transgenerational transmission of historical trauma” (Duckworth 2015, 169).
And finally, attachment to and loss of home place is another critical form of conflict that
perpetrates a level of violence upon an entire people that can reverberate for generations and
forever exacerbate tensions between cultural groups. It affects cultures at the deepest level,
permeating all aspects of a people’s existence. Displacement, exile and cultural genocide
characterize loss of home place, as does the reality that it can reflect personal as well as
symbolic meaning. “We should be sensitive to the horrors that people inflict on others in
tearing them from their roots and removing all traces of their prior existence” (Noddings 2005
57-59). Peoples today that have lengthy collective memories involving loss of home place
include but are in no way limited to: Native Americans, Israelis and Palestinians, Tibetans, and
millions more displaced peoples throughout the history of the world. “Scholars studying
28
historical or collective memory seek to understand the role of the heavy hand of history in
conflict and how groups which have been subjected to some historical trauma, such as a civil
war, a genocide, slavery, or the Holocaust, survive and process such horrific suffering—not just
as individuals but as a collective and as a culture” (Duckworth 2015, 167).
29
Global Interconnectivity
Claim
World conflicts and belief systems reflect extremes of the human experiential spectrum,
directly influencing all other areas of global studies and therefore, conflicts and belief systems
must be studied to achieve global competence.
Sub Claim
Global business and political leaders particularly must possess knowledge of conflicts and belief
systems as compulsory to global competency.
Argument
World religions and world conflicts can reflect extremes of the range of human
experience. On the one hand, world religions and belief systems—specifically for this project of
the spiritual and not of the social or political ideological nature—almost universally embody the
moral codes and exalted visions for mankind and the universe or in other words, beauty, love,
and common good. It is these building blocks that societies are organized and civil systems are
created. Typically exemplified first through organized religions, they embody the values and
morals of a culture that become the backdrop to justice, welfare, communication and financial
systems, and overall societal norms. At the other extreme—conflict of the violent or destructive
nature reflects the worst, when one considers that it exemplifies a breakdown of the other
aspects of a cultural system. While there have been more than a few examples throughout
history of religions being directly responsible for violent conflicts and persecution, likewise
violent conflicts have also been used to end tyranny and oppression, uniting societies and
30
bringing about peace that is idealized by religion. Conflicts used to resolve issues within and
between communities and nations explain a great deal about human nature, as does the
creation of belief systems to satisfy the universal humanistic need for understanding the
natural world. This presence is directly reflected in a culture’s structure and customs (Simmons
2005). It stands to reason that all global citizens and not merely global business and political
leaders must possess a basic knowledge of the interconnection of world religions and world
conflicts to all other global topics as compulsory to true global competency.
There is no aspect of the current state of globalization that has not been directly
affected by historical events involving national and international conflicts or by the founding
value systems and principles on which a society is based. Cultures and civilizations present
today are intricately constructed upon long histories filled with complex conflicts and beliefs
systems among indigenous, disparate groups of peoples. All modern societies reflect cultural
and national identities, fundamental beliefs and moral codes, and the histories of each of these
elements throughout all aspects of each culture. It is necessary to a comprehensive
understanding of how cultures have evolved that students of global studies as well as all global
citizens learn the varying origins of these cultures—not just a select set of stand-out
contributing factors. Understanding the complexities of how these elements are connected and
the direct linkage to all other subjects within the broader field of global study affords a deeper
and richer understanding of peoples, cultures and human civilization as a whole.
Evidence
31
Global competency is increasingly necessitated by a world of rapidly expanding
globalization. With advances in technology, communication, finance and travel, the world’s
cultures and seemingly disparate industries and fields of study are becoming further
intertwined. The elements that most influence across all boundaries must be studied to gain
comprehensive competency (University of Denver 2015, Noddings 2005). Global leaders across
all industries are recognizing the growing need for cross-cultural understanding and attaining
ever-higher levels of global competency. Towards this end, one example of the many 21 st
century initiatives created to facilitate this global growth in knowledge is the annual Global
Governance Conference, first convened in 2007. The central premise of this conference is that:
Religion plays an important role in international relations and
foreign policy’. Case studies by Patrick James (2011) introduce a
variety of ways in which religious people and institutions contribute
to international politics—as generators of political ideas, actors in
international diplomacy at both elite and grassroots levels,
participants in humanitarian efforts and contributors to national
and international security and insecurity (Maddox 2015, 187).
As we have seen in the global events of even just the last decade, religion and conflicts have an
immediate effect upon the economies, resources, financial systems, communications, travel
and living histories and culture of a people. A perfect example that encompasses all of these
elements is the Arab Spring—particularly carried out in Egypt before a world audience. It was a
movement to move from autocratic rule to democratic; but what was largely misunderstood by
the West was that this idea of democracy was from a uniquely Arab or Muslim perspective
rather than Western. The uprising that toppled the current regime was fed largely through the
use of global social media: it shut down tourism for the nation and much of the region; it
disrupted the world financial markets and global resources; it challenged the foreign and
32
domestic policies of nation states and particularly authoritarian regimes throughout the region
and the world; and it brought religion, plurality, secularism and theocracies even more so to the
forefront of the ongoing international relations and security dialogue. Today, every global topic
and event now has a direct and immediate domino effect upon all others throughout the world.
Counter Arguments
Some could claim that not all cultures or societies have been affected by conflict or built
upon a dominant religion or belief system, or that not all areas of global studies are or have
been impacted by world conflicts or cultural belief systems. The thesis claim may be further
challenged by the argument that there are some subjects within the field of global studies that
arguably have not been influenced by either world conflicts and/or world belief systems and
therefore my claim is inconclusive. The claim could also be challenged by the argument that
evidence supports a widely accepted idea that all aspects of globalization are interrelated and
therefore there is nothing presented that substantiates the claim that world conflicts and world
belief systems are of any elevated or exclusive importance.
It is certainly not being argued that study of or knowledge in world belief systems or
world conflicts should supersede other critical topics such as international trade,
environmentalism or human rights and security. Instead the case is being made that there is a
direct linkage of cause and effect running throughout all global issues and therefore, none can
be extracted from the rest and set upon an isolated pedestal of criticality, without significantly
neglecting and woefully overlooking the importance of the others.
33
Counter-Evidence
Four books reviewed by Maddox (2015) of Macquarie University in Australia argue for
scholars of international politics to pay more attention to religion, and in very different ways,
they set about showing how this might be done (Maddox 2015, 194). And “as Peter van der
Veer (1993) has reminded us, the idea of religion as a phenomenon to be studied emerged
simultaneously with the ideology of nationalism in the nineteenth-century discourses of
modernity. Thus, ideas of the nation have always been centrally related to how the religious
and the secular have been understood” (Horsfield 2004, 9). As the world witnessed with the
Arab Spring— which began in Tunisia and spread to many of the predominantly Muslim
countries in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), instantaneous communication and the
media increasingly play a direct role in: global politics, national economics, humanitarianism,
worldwide migration, and preservation of histories, natural and national resources and the
environment. “Media and religion must be considered not as separate entities but as complex
cultural phenomena that are intertwined and in many ways inseparable from each other and
from other cultural factors such as politics, economics and entertainment” (Horsfield 2004, 63).
Warrant
This topic is critically important in particular because of the nature of 21 st century
globalization, which has come about through advances in global technology, communication,
travel and finance. All of these components are directly impacted by the cultural histories out of
which they developed and progressed. Within this realm of influence, past conflicts and
ongoing belief systems are essential to a people’s identity both culturally and nationally.
Conflicts that have served as vehicles to resolve issues within and between communities and
34
nations explain a great deal about human nature, as does the creation of belief systems to
satisfy the universal humanistic need for understanding the natural world. It is perceived here
that these two subjects serve as “bookends” to all other topics within global studies, including
but not limited to: economics and finance, communication and technology, human geography,
and politics and trade.
Conclusion
Knowledge of world religions and world conflicts contributing to global competency is
not and necessarily should not be solely the domain of those involved in international
governing roles, i.e. those in politics and the Foreign Service. Rather, global competency should
also be attained by international financiers, environmentalists, technologists— anyone who
conducts business or study of any kind internationally should have a basic knowledge of
influencing belief systems and historical conflicts, to really understand the people, the culture
and the foreign counterpart-stage upon which global citizens will practice their field of work or
study. If global competency is imperative to successful navigation of globalization, then
unfortunately in the West in particular approach so many international issues and fields with a
belief that the underlying assumptions within those topics are universal, when in fact they may
very well largely be based upon a Western world view, rooted in own history of belief systems
and conflicts. If we don't understand and get past that intrinsic fallacy and then learn from the
vantage point of "other" perspectives, we will never be truly globally competent or fully
effective internationally. Therefore, conflicts and religions directly influence all other areas of
global studies and must be studied to achieve comprehensive global competence.
35
Global Studies Education
Claim
With increased globalization, global competency is requisite for educated global citizenship.
Sub Claim
Global studies programs need to include courses specifically in world conflicts and world belief
systems.
Argument
Global competency is on the minds and agendas of 21st century U.S. educators and
global leaders as globalization continues to redefine our world. The fundamentally inherent
problem is that in their breadth of global competency, American university graduates and
emerging global political and business leaders are not necessarily fully prepared for a globalized
world. American colleges and universities insufficiently attend to the global competency need
by current methods and must be redesigned if global competence is the intended goal.
However, there are major shortcomings in the way both area
and international studies are generally carried out. The
curriculum frequently resembles a cafeteria-style menu: one
selection or course from this shelf followed by selections from
various other shelves. Somehow, students are expected
miraculously to pull together the disparate pieces into some
coherent whole. (Brustein 2007, 383).
The field of global studies is relatively new within institutions of higher learning, yet already
within the realms of globalization, the need for global competency is already felt. Brustein
(2007), like the author of this report believes that global studies programs tend to miss the
36
opportunity to educate students on going beyond the superficial to reach deeper cultural
contexts of areas studied.
Evidence
Hayden (2007, 384) writes of the insight he gained from meeting with various global
leaders in government, multinational corporations, and even NGO’s regarding what skills are
being sought in employees. They look for graduates not only with disciplinary expertise but also
those who possess some depth of knowledge in international studies. Quoting Thomas L.
Friedman from his book, The World is Flat (Friedman, 2004), he goes on to recount:
Companies in an effort to come to terms with “localization,” that
is, the interface between global economic tendencies and local
cultural values will require that our disciplinary experts possess a
familiarity with regional and local cultures, because without
knowledge of these cultures our companies are unlikely to be
successful in understanding local consumer tastes. Even within the
United States, according to the CED report, there is a great demand
for globally competent workers who possess the skills to transcend
cultural barriers and work together in global teams. The CED report
notes that American affiliates of foreign companies employed
more than 5.4 million U.S. workers in 2002. Inadequate crosscultural training of employees in U.S. companies results annually in
an estimated $2 billion in losses. (Hayden 2007, 384)
The demand for global competency in the workforce is being created but the question remains:
are schools of higher learning meeting the challenge with relevant and substantive coursework
that fulfills this need in all fields of study and career? Or does it matter?
Critical literacy refers to empowering students with the skills to
“deconstruct” a text to understand its possible role producing or
challenging hegemonic historical narratives of the powerful. This
is especially relevant to curriculum and pedagogy related to
conflicts driven by historical memory because of the deep, often
37
transgenerational trauma that typically characterizes protracted
social conflicts. (Duckworth 2015 179)
There also appears to be a growing tendency to stovepipe knowledge and fields of study, as
though they were separate and unrelated. There is so much information today that must be
processed and absorbed for mastery of a subject that this process may seem to leave little
room or resources for an understanding of the interrelatedness of issues. It is easy for someone
in the environmental or financial field to think that religions or past conflicts of another culture
do not necessarily or directly affect their specific field of study, but that would be naive and
short-sighted. There is a need to observe the interconnectivity and complex layering of fields
and issues today more than ever before.
Counter Arguments
One might argue that a formal global studies education including world conflicts or
belief systems is not necessary to understand the world and context, or that world conflicts and
belief systems are not the most important areas of study for achieving global competency.
Counter-Evidence
A most important status is not being claimed regarding world conflicts or religions;
however these areas are being deemed essential to an education in internationalism,
regardless of field of study. “Global interdependence requires that Americans acquire relevant
knowledge and a receptive attitude about internationalism, a policy or practice of cooperation
among nations on matters such as peacekeeping, economics, and the environment” (Noddings
2005, 82). Global competency can be achieved through either formal education or through reallife experience, while a dedicated student of global studies may learn much history but still not
38
be globally competent if not knowledgeable in the areas of world conflicts and belief systems.
According to the Strategic Task Force on Education Abroad, “This is the great challenge facing
America at the beginning of a new millennium: to give its citizens a thorough understanding of
the world and its crosscurrents, to help them see what others value and believe” (Language
Corps 2015).
Warrant
There exists in the U.S. a lack of standardization between global studies degree
programs and the shortfall that results, which contributes to lower global competency. U.S.
society’s knowledge is lacking international perspective and education. Hey (2004, 396) also
highlights the fact that within the professional and the academic worlds alike, it is understood
that global issues require that global citizens possess knowledge from a multi-disciplinary
perspective. For example, “Any examination of modern warfare would be sorely compromised
if it did not draw on anthropology, ethnic studies, geography, and others” Hey (2004, 396). So,
this necessary and direct link between global competency and higher education cannot be
overstated, nor can the interrelatedness of global issues and subject matter be ignored by any
discipline.
Conclusion
The primary concern of this project is that interdisciplinary approach to
global issues—inclusive of focus on the importance of world religions and
conflicts—may be sacrificed or overlooked in degree plans rather than providing
in depth examinations of the root factors of current global events and
worldviews surrounding us today. While institutions of higher learning espouse
39
global leadership preparation for all emerging graduates, the fact remains that,
unless a degree is more advanced or specialized, the global competency being
achieved is cursory if not non-existent entirely. All parties involved in the
administration and implementation of U.S. higher education needs to address a
more comprehensive curriculum and have “as its principal goal the ability to
know, comprehend, analyze, and evaluate information in the context of an
increasingly globalized world” (Hey 2004, 396) in order to achieve global
competence. “If we miss this opportunity, we will surely fail to prepare our
graduates for the enormous global challenges of the 21st century” (Hey 2004,
396).
40
Addressing Global Issues
Claim
Through enlightened worldviews inclusive of an understanding of world conflicts and world
belief systems, effective global solutions can be created and implemented; therefore, global
competence is necessary across all areas of global studies.
Sub Claim
In an increasingly globalized world we share resources, cultures, economies, and political and
environmental consequences more than ever. Therefore, collaborative solutions must be
produced to aid the success of the entire global system.
Argument
Competent global leaders and citizens—especially those seeking a mastery of global
affairs, would find consensus that knowledge of conflicts and belief systems is compulsory to
global competency. By attaining a broader education that specifically encompasses both world
conflicts and religions, we learn that these fields have deeply and indelibly impacted world
cultural memories and the course of events across industries. With advances through
globalization that increasingly connect and more rapidly expedite communication, travel,
finance and trade, world cultures are more interactive than ever before, thereby bringing about
greater problems and presenting opportunities for cross-cultural cooperation in global
solutions. Fundamental understanding of the “whys” of a culture would aid in identifying what
is valued (Hey 2004, Quintana 2014). Exploring or even adopting differing viewpoints broadens
the spectrum of available knowledge and experience that can be brought to any issue requiring
41
resolution. Studying the history of conflict and the influence of religion can aid in predicting and
preventing history repeating itself. Recognizing and respecting world belief systems can assist
to achieve higher levels of pluralism in global competency and cooperation (Maddox 2014).
Evidence
Global leaders who are directly engaged in global issue resolution necessarily possess
knowledge of world cultures and thereby an understanding of the contributing factors in the
issues being addressed. Part of this understanding includes the history of conflicts and belief
systems among the nations and people affected by the global issue. Michael H. Levine of the
Progressive Policy Institute stated:
Globalization is causing policy and business leaders to call for new
competencies to advance U.S. competitiveness, leadership in
global markets, scientific innovation, security, and proactively
apply improvements to the international relations geopolitical
realm. These new realities demonstrate that future workers
seeking careers in business, government, health care, law
enforcement, and a wide variety of other jobs will all require global
knowledge and skills (Language Corps 2015).
Vivien Stewart, Vice President of Education for the Asia Society recognized that today,
"Business, education and political leaders are grappling with the question of how to produce
workers and citizens who can remain competitive in a world that seems to be shrinking before
our very eyes" (Language Corps 2015).
Counter Arguments
Oppositions to this claim could argue that a base knowledge of a culture’s history of
conflict or major belief systems is not necessary to addressing current global issues, as some
global solutions would be irrespective of indigenous conflicts or belief systems; some answers
42
are universal . Another argument may be that a cursory understanding of world conflicts and
world belief systems sufficiently serve to still achieve global competence, that my evidence is
not compelling enough or provable otherwise.
Counter-Evidence
Language Corps (2015), a multinational organization dedicated to cross-cultural
proliferation decreed, “Given that finance, trade, technology, and information now move
relatively freely across national borders; governments, corporations, educational institutions,
and the international community at large, [we] need managers and professionals who possess a
broad understanding of our interconnected world.” Kevin Gill, Global Director of Staffing for
Honeywell summarized that, “All major hiring companies need global citizens. Global
sensitivities, global perspective, global insight…are exactly the skills every major organization is
looking for – in every industry.” (Language Corps 2015) And Johnathan Jones, Recruiting
Director for Goldman Sachs, too acknowledged that, “In the financial world, cultural awareness
and cultural adeptness are far more important than undergraduate major or existing skill sets.
These needs touch all industries, from banking to healthcare to engineering.” (Language Corps
2015)
Warrant
It has become widely repeated and accepted in our culture that when we fail to learn
from history, we are likely to repeat it. A study of history will show that the major events
throughout involved either conflict or belief systems. And separate world cultures have evolved
to an extent independent of other cultures in their problem-solving; the opportunity to
combine the lessons learned from the past with innovation gained from cultural collaboration
43
in the present will only grow as the world becomes more connected through technology,
communication, travel and finance. Challenges can be met when people of different cultures
come to understand one another on a more fundamental level where the influence of conflict
and belief systems resides (Gunter 2015).
It is important to study these topics; first, because conflicts that played a direct or
consequential role in the long-term history of mankind and led in a direct way to the current
state of globalization are one critically necessary field of global study. If we don't understand
why the Sunnis fight the Shiites or why “The Troubles” of Northern Ireland remain part of the
daily culture of that community, then we cannot understand why borders or economies are
established the way that they are or why diplomacy remains elusive or challenging between
groups of people's. Fundamental belief systems and long-engrained conflicts with neighbors are
critical to trade, diplomacy and every single aspect of international relations. And second, as
belief systems are the foundation for a group's world view and societal structure, it is necessary
that an overview course intended to explain the evolution of modern man and civilization—
and more pointedly the nature of globalized cultures today—would require that we go back as
far as the Egyptians and the Greeks to understand why we developed belief systems in the first
place and how we've actually based every subsequent system directly on those early building
blocks of faith and philosophy.
Additionally, understanding the interrelated and complex relationship between these
two topics is especially important to gaining a true understanding of each of them as separates.
Only the rare individual in the U.S. who remains totally isolated from modern society and
civilization is not directly impacted on a daily basis by the effects of both of these topics and by
44
globalization. Whether someone pursues global studies as a formal education or not, it is
necessary to understand not just one or two aspects of the global environment, such as finance,
or communication, or the environment. It has become necessary to understand also how and
why other fields of study are directly impacted various particular global topics and how all
global issues are interconnected.
Conclusion
The farther reaching effects of this are the unintended consequences of poor decisions
made by global leadership and rooted in presumptions of superiority, attitudes of arrogance
and absences of effective long term diplomatic political and cultural strategies. Short sighted
politics leaves many lessons to be learned and relearned as a case study of unintended
consequences. Unless we are willing to look at the causes, we don’t have any likelihood of
stopping conflicts. “The consequences of this breakdown of dialogue are shown in the inability
to confront the most pressing human problems in most societies because of the inability to
come up with some solutions that are acceptable to all” (Horsfield 2004 208-209). As
globalization forces the world cultures into more connection— increasingly through virtual
means, communication and understanding across worldview perspectives is more important
than ever. Erroneous solutions have and will continue to be applied to global issues in the
absence of competency in conflicts and belief systems. “Civilizations rise and fall under the
powerful sway of religious transformation and the accompanying social changes. More than
ever, the citizens of Planet Earth need to make a concerted effort to understand the power of
religion and appreciate the dynamism present in human worldviews” (Simmons 2006, vii)
45
Solutions
Religious belief systems and imbedded cultural memories of past or persistent conflicts
have permeated every aspect of international relations and global issues today. Globalization is
only growing in speed and reach and as such, the world increasingly shares resources, finance,
economies, environmental issues, communications and technology. It is critical today more
than ever that collaborative solutions be constructed to aid the entirety of the global system.
But to accomplish this, we must first possess a level of global competency inclusive of
knowledge in world belief systems and conflicts that will more likely assure success.
First, global political and industry leaders must recognize and create a greater demand
for globally competent representatives, employees and citizens. The demand must be driven
and lead by example through themselves first possessing and applying knowledge of conflicts
and belief systems as compulsory to global competency. Next, these same leaders must
demonstrate clear foresight and educated hindsight for a true understanding of global
situations from multiple perspectives and not just from a singular worldview. Also, crosscultural leadership and diversity must be an area of study and consideration in all fields of
industry and formal study, given the increasingly complex global environment that global
citizens must embark for all career fields. And finally, global studies higher education programs
need to include evolving courses in the specific areas of world religions and world conflicts if
institutions hope to produce well-rounded graduates who understand the connectivity
between all global topics—even those beyond the scope of their degree path.
The purpose of this project was not to suggest methods of implementation but rather to
highlight a dire need which must be investigated further. The topic of this thesis appears to not
46
yet be a widely scrutinized area of academic research study and if any lasting solutions to global
peace, security and prosperity are to be instituted, any effective initiative must start from
global competency in all members of leadership in all fields of study and industry. Presently,
there exists an imminent need in U.S. for greater global competency. Countless studies have
shown that the U.S. is falling behind in world leadership in areas of trade, economics,
education, technology and innovative solutions to global issues. “If Americans choose to remain
ignorant about what gives religious and spiritual meaning to people’s lives throughout the
world, then they open themselves up to the charge that they are completely out of touch with
contemporary global realities” (Noddings 2005, 100). If the U.S. is to remain competitive and
viable in all global matters, we must possess and continue to produce increasingly competent
global citizens knowledgeable in the history of world religions and world conflicts.
47
Project Discussion
The solutions presented in this project are not precisely quantifiable and therefore have
been challenging to assess. The direct and lasting application of the recommended solutions
would take extensive time and effort on the part of stakeholders in order to produce lasting
change from the current state of global competency and international affairs. Therefore, it is
difficult to know if the project approach has been successful, as success lies in the future impact
upon decision makers able to implement the recommended measures.
The likely strong point of this project has been one of credibility: the concept that world
religions and conflicts directly influence all other areas of global studies should easily resonate
with the audience. The primary difficulty with a project involving world religions and conflicts is
a matter of manageability and scale. The greatest takeaway from this project for the author has
been a reinvigorated fascination with world religions and conflicts throughout history and the
impact that each have upon all aspects of global studies. These will be subject matters that will
remain at the forefront of ongoing study and career specialization for the author.
The size of this project was daunting, to the point of potentially warranting an
introduction workshop at the start of the BACP program curriculum. Certainly most
inexperienced project writers would likely agree that no matter how much of an early start one
plans and how much advanced preparation is undertaken— as the completion deadline neared
it became apparent that it was insufficient for achieving the complete results first envisioned.
Planning, preparation, organization and consistency are certainly critical factors in the success
of this project. A student of a degree plan requiring this concluding project would do well to
prepare for and keep this project in mind throughout their decree pursuit— even if self-guided.
48
Guided instruction however would better prepare and assist the student in more effectively
gathering ideas and evidence for the project thesis far earlier in their program than when
approaching or during the actual coursework of the preparatory design class that serves as
immediate precursor to the implementation course. A better and more congruent,
comprehensive and indicative work product would be the direct result.
Identifying a project topic for this report was the easiest step in the lengthy process to
completion. When examining the BACP Global Studies curriculum for potential thesis topics, an
experiential gap was found within the course of study. Drawing upon the author’s own
experience from enrollment in the Global Studies undergraduate curriculum, as the degree plan
is currently designed the major courses of study included an examination of: Global Politics,
Economics and Finance, Trade, And Cultural "Value Systems" that did not specifically broach
organized religions. As part of the common coursework, additional topics examined included:
21st Century Global Issues and a limited review of the "Past as Prologue". Each of these courses
dissect one particular aspect of global affairs, yet none yielded a comprehensive overview of
either the history of world conflicts or of world belief systems, both which directly link to all
other subjects within the broader field of study. The current program does not require
completion of courses specifically dedicated to either world conflicts or world belief systems.
This thesis topic was selected because it is believed that these two specific subjects are critical
to a complete formal education in the current state of global affairs.
The design of this project was structured from careful consideration of the vast breadth
of each thesis issue: world conflicts and world religions. Progress was very much dependent
upon deconstruction of the ideas and issues involved, breaking the project into small segments
49
to research and then reconstruct. The research approach was first to define key terms of the
discussion and then identify and analyze connections between global issues and world religions
and world conflicts. Upon doing this, the author proceeded with evaluating the lasting effect
that religions and conflicts have upon a people and a culture. Beyond the initial two claims,
higher education in global studies was reviewed so as to reveal both what is working well and
where there is still more work to be done. Next, it was important to recognize that identifying
the need and then the means to meet that need were only partly accomplishing the goal of the
project: linking newly globally competent graduates to positions of influence over global issues
in order to effect more lasting and meaningful solutions is where the report brought the
arguments to fruition. “Without knowledge action is useless and knowledge without action is
futile” (Abu Bakr 634).
Research posed the most difficulty for this project. Scale again was at the heart of the
challenge, as the topic of the thesis is so relatively new within the field of global studies that
there is as yet little in the way of specific data from peer-reviewed articles to directly support or
refute the primary claim. Within the growing field of global studies, the available source
material can be quite overwhelming and yet still lack the specificity sought for the nature of the
specific thesis topic. As a result, narrowed research of this topic proved a challenge. However,
substantial periphery information assisted in lending support to the main arguments. This
project decidedly brought into sharp relief that which is still to be explored and developed
within the realm of fully integrated global studies.
50
Executive Summary
World religions and world conflicts are viewed by the author as representing the
equivalent of extremes on the cultural continuum. “Wherever these religions remain true to
their original, humane ideals, then they are a force for good in the world. But whenever they
serve as engines for the escalation of cruelty and violence, they are an indisputable force for
evil” (Noddings 2005, 94-95).Any continued lack of empathy, understanding and consideration
toward those who do not share our fundamental values, our same worldview, or our intrinsic
history will perpetually result in protracted conflicts, broken ties and relations, imbalanced
trade, political inequities and challenging communication and cooperation.
A number of claims were substantiated in this report. First, world conflicts and belief
systems directly affect and influence all other areas of global studies and therefore, conflicts
and belief systems must be studied to achieve global competence. Next, a culture's history of
conflicts and belief systems give great insight into the nature and character of its people and
therefore global competence necessarily includes a deeper understanding of both cultural
topics. Also, in light of increasing globalization, global competency is requisite for educated
global citizenship. And finally, only through enlightened worldviews inclusive of an
understanding of world conflicts and world belief systems can effective global solutions be
created and implemented; and so global competence is necessary across all areas of global
studies.
In order to recognize and achieve global competency, many questions had to first be
answered. What are some examples within modern history that demonstrate how conflicts and
51
religions have directly impacted other global studies subject areas? Is there an existing
accepted opinion within the field of international studies regarding a basic understanding or
knowledge of the world conflicts and religions and their influence upon globalization, upon
current world events and upon specific topics within the area of global studies? And is there a
consensus within the professional global studies field regarding minimum global competency
levels? What are some examples of successful people, initiatives, institutions, organizations,
and curriculums for advancing global competence? What are they doing?
Initially the research results revealed a number of assumed points of interest within the
global studies field. Much of what has been discussed here encompasses an area of global
studies that is likely largely “given” for most culturally competent global leadership. It is
naturally understood by them that the world’s conflicts and religions are the backdrop to all
other areas of human existence. What has been attempted in this work is to bring to the
foreground that which has been assumed by few, overlooked by most, and ignored by almost
all outside of the focused context of specific fields of global study.
The glaring gaps and shortfalls in global competency within this country must be
resolved very quickly or we will continue to find ourselves in a defensive—or indefensible—
position as a global player. “Over and over again, studies have shown that American students
lack even basic geographic knowledge, not to mention exposure to world regions, languages
and cultures. Given our increasingly global economy, this lack leaves US students educationally
and economically handicapped.” (Language Corps 2015) Even more than that, "Business,
education and political leaders are grappling with the question of how to produce workers and
citizens who can remain competitive in a world that seems to be shrinking before our very
52
eyes," Vivien Stewart, Vice President of Education, Asia Society, December 2005. (Language
Corps 2015) We must start to identify, evaluate and address the root causes of the global
issues— not merely address and stop at treating only the symptoms of the problems. A cursory
knowledge of world religions and world conflicts will go a long way to better understand the
chaotic world in which we live on an increasingly globalized scale. But this education begins by a
formative shift from a Western-centric worldview of valuation:
In the United States, freedom to practice religion or to reject
religion entirely is guaranteed by the Constitution. It is hard to
imagine how global citizenship might be encouraged from a
perspective that denies this right. Yet theocracies and threats of
theocracy continue to appear in the 21st century world. The
continued presence—even growth—of theocratic thinking
suggests a need for understanding, but perhaps not tolerance. As
several of us have pointed out, moral relativism is not a viable
position, and if we believe that people should be free to choose
their own positions on religion, we have to promote religious
freedom. Again, promotion or advocacy does not require coercion,
ridicule or indoctrination. It requires continuous efforts at friendly
and powerful education (Noddings 2005, 127).
A number of solutions were recommended to resolve and correct the issue of global
competence. First, independent global citizens across all industries and fields of study must selfeducate regarding cultural diversity within world belief systems and world conflicts. Second,
higher education standards for global competence must be raised and curriculums broadened
and deepened. And finally, increased pressure and demand must be exerted by present global
leaders for higher future global competence if the market for such is to be further developed. If
this triad of advancement were to be implemented, comprehensive and effective global
competency and citizenship will be achieved in our lifetime.
53
In calling for additional research, the author is not attempting to fully explore the
differentiation between cultural meaningful ideas and culturally ingrained ideas—a separate
conversation beyond the scope of this project. The idea is not necessarily to solve the issues at
hand, but first to identify and link religion and conflicts to all other aspects of global studies.
“Because values expressed religiously cause people to behave socially in certain ways, religion
is inextricably linked to the quest for power, the political process. Is it any wonder that at the
center of the vast majority of the world’s wars and conflicts a religious dispute can be found?
On the other hand religions throughout history have provided the inspiration for that which is
most beautiful most sublime in human culture” (GSU 2006, 1). We must be reframing the issues
of religion and conflict, to look at them not as taboo topics best left in private or in the past, but
as deeply meaningful and universal influences upon the cultural consciousness of a people and
all human endeavors and therefore to be acknowledged, understood, accepted, and then
accorded due respect.
54
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58
Appendix 1
Table 1. Global Deaths in Conflicts since the Year 1400. (Rosser 2015)
59
Table 2. Armed Conflicts in 2013. (UCDP 2015)
60
World Religious Beliefs / Non-Beliefs By Adherents, 1910–2010
Religion /
Irreligion
1910
2010
Rate*
1910–
2010
2000–
2010
2,260,440,000 32.8
1.32
1.31
12.6
1,553,773,000 22.5
1.97
1.86
223,383,000
12.7
948,575,000
13.8
1.46
1.41
Agnosticism
3,369,000
0.2
676,944,000
9.8
5.45
0.32
Chinese folk
religion
390,504,000
22.2
436,258,000
6.3
0.11
0.16
Buddhism
138,064,000
7.9
494,881,000
7.2
1.28
0.99
Ethnoreligion
135,074,000
7.7
242,516,000
3.5
0.59
1.06
Atheism
243,000
0.0
136,652,000
2.0
6.54
0.05
New religion
6,865,000
0.4
63,004,000
0.9
2.24
0.29
Sikhism
3,232,000
0.2
23,927,000
0.3
2.02
1.54
Judaism
13,193,000
0.8
14,761,000
0.2
0.11
0.72
Spiritualism
324,000
0.0
13,700,000
0.2
3.82
0.94
Daoism
437,000
0.0
8,429,000
0.1
3.00
1.73
Bahá'í Faith
225,000
0.0
7,306,000
0.1
3.54
1.72
Confucianism
760,000
0.0
6,449,000
0.1
2.16
0.36
Jainism
1,446,000
0.1
5,316,000
0.1
1.31
1.53
Shinto
7,613,000
0.4
2,761,000
0.0
−1.01
0.09
Zoroastrianism
119,000
0.0
197,000
0.0
0.51
0.74
Total Population:
1,758,412,000 100.0 6,895,889,000 100.0 1.38
1.20
Adherents
%
Adherents
Christianity
611,810,000
34.8
Islam
221,749,000
Hinduism
%
*Rate = average annual growth rate, percent per year indicated
Table 3. World Religious Beliefs/Non-Beliefs by Adherents, 1910-2010. (Johnson and Grim
2011)
61
Table 4. Size and Projected Growth of Major Religious Groups. (Hackett 2015)