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Bio103 revision 1/25/2015 9:19:00 PM Cells: CSM: made of lipids and glycoproteins and proteins; hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail, maintains structure, substances can pass through. Large molecules must pass through the protein carriers. Many hormone receptors on surface as well. Cytoplasm: made of salts, water. Jelly-like consistency. Nucleus: brain of the cell, contains DNA, has a nucleoid and nuclear pores and a nuclear membrane. Mitochondria: powerhouse; makes ATP (energy) for cell processes Smooth ER: no ribosomes on surface, processes fats and lipids. Rough ER: has ribosomes on surface, proteins. ER sends molecules to golgi body, where the vesciles are finished and shipped off – sometimes they have carbs added to them. Vacuole: more salts in it; water, oxygen, ions, receives wastes Chloroplast: involved in photosynthesis. Contains stroma, stacks of grana/thylakoid. Microtubules and filaments Many functions: protects against water loss and drying out, regulates temperature Skin: (through sweat and its evaporation), protects against bacteria entering, regulates temperature, excretes waste, synthesizes vitamin D, sensory perception Melanin: brown, carotene: yellow/orange, hemoglobin: red ABCD: signs of moles and etc being cancerous Papillary layer: identification using finger prints, regulates temperature and supplies nutrients to certain layers of skin Vitiligo: localized loss of melanocytes, unknown cause, maybe autoimmune response which triggers body into attacking its own melanocytes Agryria: silver skin/bluish due to intake of silver. Sketetal system: Functions: protects heart/lungs/organs, movement, supports body and muscles, leverage, stores yellow marrow fat and calcium, in bone marrow blood cells are made Osteoporosis Craniosynostosis: bones fuse too quickly in skull, fontanels in kids, causes strange shape of head and feminization of male body (eg growing breasts) Synovial joints are lubricated with synovial fluid; ganglia may form (soft lump, swelling near a damaged joint) Arthritis: inflamed joints Rheumatoid arthritis: autoimmune response that causes inflamed joints Diagram Muscular system: Functions: movement, support, generate heat, storing protein (and sometimes fat), air flow, blood flow, food movement, secretion flow Types of muscles: skeletal (striated), cardiac, smooth Muscle fibres: nerves tell them to contract, so calcium is released onto the fibres, which causes them to contract (myosin and actin attach.) ATP removes calcium and myosin and actin unattach and muscle relaxes. Rigid paralysis: lack of potassium and ATP, so muscle does not relax Flaccid paralysis: lack of calcium, muscle does not contract Diagram Respiratory system Functions: receiving oxygen, getting rid of waste like carbon dioxide, lungs can aid in flotation in water, cooling body with water evaporation from lungs Inhale, nose lined with cilia and mucus. Air goes through trachea to lungs Larynx, pharynx (throat). Larynx is lined with cilia which clean the air. Pleural membrane around lungs (pleurisy is when the membrane is damaged, usually due to smoking) Ribs protect lungs, intercostal muscle around them to allow movement and stretching Two bronchi… leads off into bronchioles and then alveoli. Very large surface area. Asthma and allergies, can lead to restricted airflow… swelling, excessive mucus production, etc Blood: Functions: transport of oxygen, removal of wastes, carries hormones, nutrients, repairs wounds, regulates temperature and water, protects from disease Composed of plasma, buffy coat, and red blood cells Contains hemoglobin (red pigment) which carries oxygen RBC: concave disks, no nucleus, can carry oxygen Anemia (many types) – reduced RBC count and so less oxygen is carried around the body/less efficiently. Symptoms: yellowness of skin and eyes, paleness, cold skin, weakness/fatigue, shortness of breath, low blood pressure, angina, fainting. Improves with intake of iron – leafy green vegetables, liver, red meat Mononucleosis: affects monocytes, lowers immunity. Symptoms are swollen pharynx, salivary glands, sore throat, fatigue, weakness. Spreads via saliva. Hemolytic disease Circulatory system: Functions: same as blood. Heart beats (muscle) and pumps blood and therefore oxygen, nutrients, etc around body. High BP: more than 120/80. Risk of heart failure, stroke, kidney failure Low BP: lower than 110/70. Risk of hemorrhage, infection dehydration Atherosclerosis vs arteriosclerosis: in arter--, the walls of the arteries become less elastic due to buildup of fats and cholesterol. In athero--, plaque builds up on artery wall and may break off and cause blockage. Vessel types: arteries, veins, capillaries. Arteries have thickest walls and the most muscle and elastic, as oxygenated blood flows in very high pressure inside. Veins have much thinner elastic layer and muscle wall, and blood is deoxygenated inside and moves at very low pressure – it is generally helped by muscle tone. They have valves to prevent backflow. Capillaries do not have elastic or muscle layer, only endothelium. Lymphatic system: Functions: functions alongside the circulatory system, carries white blood cells, fights infections, detects and fights infections and bacteria/viruses/etc, gather tissue fluids, support immune system Organs: tonsils, lymph nodes, spleen, thymus gland The spleen makes the red and white blood cells when you are a fetus, and makes 30% of body’s platelets. During severe injury it can release cell rich blood into circulatory system. Works as a backup. Lymph nodes: can become swollen when fighting infections. Lymphatic vessels have valves in them and rely on muscle tone to move fluid around. Immune system: Functions: to fight infection, destroy foreign material in the body Lines of defense: skin/mucus membranes, white blood cells (phagocytes) and antimicrobial proteins, lymphocytes and antibodies What is the inflammatory response? A wound/damage occurs, histamines are produced and swelling occurs, white blood cells gather around and destroy (engulf) bacteria, clotting factors. Antigens and antibodies – binding. B cells (bone marrow) produce antibodies, T cells (mature in thymus gland) directly attack cells Memory cells, cytotoxic / natural killer, helper. IgE is concerned with allergic responses Digestive system: Functions: break down the food we eat into molecules that can be processed in the body, for nutrition, excretion Mouth, esophagus, epiglottis covers the trachea, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, anus. Also involved: liver, pancreas, appendix. Digestion begins in the mouth: salivary glands release amylase. In the stomach, hydrochloric acid breaks down food, kills bacteria Small intestine absorbs food, large absorbs water. The liver recycles blood cells and produces bile (emulsifies fat and oil, stored in gall bladder.) Pancreas: digestive organ, produces enzymes Impaction: overloading the bowels; caused by dehydration, not enough fiber in diet, not going to the bathroom, lack of exercises and hypothyroidism = slow peristalsis, Lysosome storage disease: a metabolic disorder; lack of enzymes that eliminate unwanted substances from the body. Very common in the UAE. The nervous system is often harmed. Urinary system: Function: elimination of wastes Kidney, ureter, bladder, urethra Kidney: filters blood, for solutes, water, etc and excretes urine Ureter: a channel for the urine flow from kidney to bladder Bladder: stretchable container, stores urine Urethra: channel for urine flow between bladder and body surface Nephrons: basic structural unit of kidney, filters blood, reabsorbs what’s needed, and excretes the rest Glomerulus: knot of capillaries, blood pressure forces fluids to enter kidney tubules, waste and useful products and salts are both filtered out. The kidneys are told by hormones how much water to expel (ADH!), how to balance pH. Kidneys send hormones to bone marrow to stimulate or suppress red blood cell production. Kidney stones – prevention: drink water, low salt diet, exercise. Vey painful to pass. May have to be surgically removed. Nephritis (kidney inflammation) Cystitis (bladder infection) Nervous system: Function: detect and react to what is going on around us Central nervous system (brain and spinal cord), peripheral nervous system Myelinated neurons: send messages faster, more compact, don’t get tired quickly, messages do not cross over to other neurons. Covered by Schwann cells as insulation. Node of Ranvier. Sodium potassium pump Acetylcholine: excitatory to vertebrate skeletal muscles. Dopamine: excitatory. Serotonin: inhibitory. Reflex response. Autonomic nervous system: involuntary. Parasympathetic: pupils constrict, stimulates salivary glands, heart beats slower, stomach and pancreas stimulation, gallbladder stimulation, erection of genitals. Sympathetic: pupils dilate, heart beats faster, stimulates adrenal medulla, inhibits salivary excretion, relaxes bronchi in lungs Somatic nervous system: voluntary. Forebrain: cerebrum, thalamus, hypothalamus. Hindbrain: pons, medulla, cerebellum. Midbrain Thalamus: sensory input Amygdala: alerts you to danger, registers emotions Hypothalamus: connects brain to hormone control Olfactory bulb: smell Frontal lobe: personality, decisions Dyslexia: reversing/flipping letters when reading and writing, genetic, stress. Addictive behavior – insula What are viruses? Toxic substance – living entity or? New theory. REF to PPT. Sensory perception: White = all colors Sense of balance and motion in inner ear Sense of taste: sweet, sour, salty, umami, picante Endocrine system: Hormones – chemical signal that is excreted into body fluids and communicates regulatory messages in the body Target cells: equipped to receive and respond to hormonal messages Endocrine gland systems: no duct, excrete hormones directly into blood Exocrine gland systems: have ducts, eg tear/salivary/digestive glands Hypothalamus, pineal gland, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovary, testis Pituitary: oxytocin, ADH, FSH, LH Pancreas: insulin, glucagon Ovaries: estrogen and progesterone Pineal gland: melatonin Testes: androgen Hormones work in two ways; it may trigger a hormone receptor on CSM and trigger a response in cytoplasm or within cell – or it may pass into the cell itself and activate a gene within the nucleus. Hyperthyroidism (fast heart rate, difficulty gaining weight, many bowel movements, bulging eyes) vs hypothyroidism (low heart rate, high body weight, puffy eyes, few bowel movements, depression) Homeostasis of blood glucose: pancreas stimulated to release insulin or glucagon, the liver absorb or release glucose and body cells respond accordingly. Blood sugar levels affecting brain: drop = fatigue, increase = dizzy/nervous Type 1 diabetes: inherited Type 2 diabetes: developed in 30’s Symptoms of diabetes: tingling/loss of feeling in feet, blurry vision, fatigue, unexpected weight loss, increased thirst, need to urinate Prevent diabetes: eat well, exercise Reproductive system: Female: vagina, ovaries, fallopian tubes, egg/ovum, cervix (bottom of uterus), labia minora and majora. o FSH hormone stimulates development of ovarian follicles (preovulation) o Luteinizing hormone = secretion of estrogen and progesterone into blood stream (ovulation) … growth of endometrium lining = prep for pregnancy, this is shed if egg is not fertilized (menstruation) o Childbirth is stimulated by estrogen and oxytocin (uterus begins to contract, placenta makes prostaglandins and cervix dilates) o An ectopic pregnancy = in fallopian tube, not in uterus, must be aborted Male: penis, sperm, testes, scrotum, prostate gland o Testes 2 main functions; spermatogenesis (stim. by FSH) and secretion of testosterone into the blood stream (LH) = masculinization o Epididymis temporarily stores sperm o Seminal vesicle secretes semen (which sperm feeds on when it all collects in prostate gland) o Cutting the vas deferens = vasectomy (muscular tube, pushes sperm to the prostate gland) Twins: Monozygotic: one fertilized egg, splits into two embryos (identical) Dizygotic: two separate eggs, fertilized by two sperms (fraternal) Monozygotic are always the same sex, have very similar fingerprints, same DNA, same placenta, same blood type Dizygotic can be the same sex or different, different fingerprints, different DNA, different placenta, blood type may not be the same Nature vs nurture argument Epigenetics: same genes expressed differently due to methylation of genes, caused by external factors (stress, pollution) Women who have twins: twins run in their family, may be older mothers (35+), Folic acid consumption, if high (women) = likely to have twins Fraternal twins: girl and boy – girl is usually larger at birth. Why? Hormones? Conjoined twins: monozygotic, did not separate Cancer: Caused by mutation in cells… they mutate and begin to multiply rapidly. Lack cell to cell adhesion, grow out of control, lack cell to cell contact inhibition, grow strange proteins. Asymmetrical, Borders uneven, Color, Diameter > 5mm Can metastasize and spread to other organs and tissues Carcinogenesis: something goes wrong and a cell becomes cancerous Some cancers are hereditary (eg breast cancer) Colon cancer is common…starts as a polyp 1/25/2015 9:19:00 PM 1/25/2015 9:19:00 PM