Download Bio Notes Last modified January 9, 2017 at 5:21 am

Bio103 revision
1/25/2015 9:19:00 PM
Cells:

CSM: made of lipids and glycoproteins and proteins; hydrophilic head and hydrophobic
tail, maintains structure, substances can pass through. Large molecules must pass through
the protein carriers. Many hormone receptors on surface as well.

Cytoplasm: made of salts, water. Jelly-like consistency.

Nucleus: brain of the cell, contains DNA, has a nucleoid and nuclear pores and a nuclear
membrane.

Mitochondria: powerhouse; makes ATP (energy) for cell processes

Smooth ER: no ribosomes on surface, processes fats and lipids.

Rough ER: has ribosomes on surface, proteins.

ER sends molecules to golgi body, where the vesciles are finished and shipped off –
sometimes they have carbs added to them.

Vacuole: more salts in it; water, oxygen, ions, receives wastes

Chloroplast: involved in photosynthesis. Contains stroma, stacks of grana/thylakoid.

Microtubules and filaments

Many functions: protects against water loss and drying out, regulates temperature
Skin:
(through sweat and its evaporation), protects against bacteria entering, regulates
temperature, excretes waste, synthesizes vitamin D, sensory perception

Melanin: brown, carotene: yellow/orange, hemoglobin: red

ABCD: signs of moles and etc being cancerous

Papillary layer: identification using finger prints, regulates temperature and supplies
nutrients to certain layers of skin

Vitiligo: localized loss of melanocytes, unknown cause, maybe autoimmune response
which triggers body into attacking its own melanocytes

Agryria: silver skin/bluish due to intake of silver.
Sketetal system:

Functions: protects heart/lungs/organs, movement, supports body and muscles, leverage,
stores yellow marrow fat and calcium, in bone marrow blood cells are made

Osteoporosis

Craniosynostosis: bones fuse too quickly in skull, fontanels in kids, causes strange shape
of head and feminization of male body (eg growing breasts)

Synovial joints are lubricated with synovial fluid; ganglia may form (soft lump, swelling
near a damaged joint)

Arthritis: inflamed joints

Rheumatoid arthritis: autoimmune response that causes inflamed joints

Diagram
Muscular system:

Functions: movement, support, generate heat, storing protein (and sometimes fat), air
flow, blood flow, food movement, secretion flow

Types of muscles: skeletal (striated), cardiac, smooth

Muscle fibres: nerves tell them to contract, so calcium is released onto the fibres, which
causes them to contract (myosin and actin attach.) ATP removes calcium and myosin and
actin unattach and muscle relaxes.

Rigid paralysis: lack of potassium and ATP, so muscle does not relax

Flaccid paralysis: lack of calcium, muscle does not contract

Diagram
Respiratory system

Functions: receiving oxygen, getting rid of waste like carbon dioxide, lungs can aid in
flotation in water, cooling body with water evaporation from lungs

Inhale, nose lined with cilia and mucus. Air goes through trachea to lungs

Larynx, pharynx (throat). Larynx is lined with cilia which clean the air.

Pleural membrane around lungs (pleurisy is when the membrane is damaged, usually
due to smoking)

Ribs protect lungs, intercostal muscle around them to allow movement and stretching

Two bronchi… leads off into bronchioles and then alveoli. Very large surface area.

Asthma and allergies, can lead to restricted airflow… swelling, excessive mucus
production, etc
Blood:

Functions: transport of oxygen, removal of wastes, carries hormones, nutrients, repairs
wounds, regulates temperature and water, protects from disease

Composed of plasma, buffy coat, and red blood cells

Contains hemoglobin (red pigment) which carries oxygen

RBC: concave disks, no nucleus, can carry oxygen

Anemia (many types) – reduced RBC count and so less oxygen is carried around the
body/less efficiently. Symptoms: yellowness of skin and eyes, paleness, cold skin,
weakness/fatigue, shortness of breath, low blood pressure, angina, fainting. Improves
with intake of iron – leafy green vegetables, liver, red meat

Mononucleosis: affects monocytes, lowers immunity. Symptoms are swollen pharynx,
salivary glands, sore throat, fatigue, weakness. Spreads via saliva.

Hemolytic disease
Circulatory system:

Functions: same as blood. Heart beats (muscle) and pumps blood and therefore oxygen,
nutrients, etc around body.

High BP: more than 120/80. Risk of heart failure, stroke, kidney failure

Low BP: lower than 110/70. Risk of hemorrhage, infection dehydration

Atherosclerosis vs arteriosclerosis: in arter--, the walls of the arteries become less elastic
due to buildup of fats and cholesterol. In athero--, plaque builds up on artery wall and
may break off and cause blockage.

Vessel types: arteries, veins, capillaries. Arteries have thickest walls and the most muscle
and elastic, as oxygenated blood flows in very high pressure inside. Veins have much
thinner elastic layer and muscle wall, and blood is deoxygenated inside and moves at very
low pressure – it is generally helped by muscle tone. They have valves to prevent
backflow. Capillaries do not have elastic or muscle layer, only endothelium.
Lymphatic system:

Functions: functions alongside the circulatory system, carries white blood cells, fights
infections, detects and fights infections and bacteria/viruses/etc, gather tissue fluids,
support immune system

Organs: tonsils, lymph nodes, spleen, thymus gland

The spleen makes the red and white blood cells when you are a fetus, and makes 30% of
body’s platelets. During severe injury it can release cell rich blood into circulatory
system. Works as a backup.

Lymph nodes: can become swollen when fighting infections.

Lymphatic vessels have valves in them and rely on muscle tone to move fluid around.
Immune system:

Functions: to fight infection, destroy foreign material in the body

Lines of defense: skin/mucus membranes, white blood cells (phagocytes) and
antimicrobial proteins, lymphocytes and antibodies

What is the inflammatory response? A wound/damage occurs, histamines are produced
and swelling occurs, white blood cells gather around and destroy (engulf) bacteria,
clotting factors.

Antigens and antibodies – binding.

B cells (bone marrow) produce antibodies, T cells (mature in thymus gland) directly
attack cells

Memory cells, cytotoxic / natural killer, helper.

IgE is concerned with allergic responses
Digestive system:

Functions: break down the food we eat into molecules that can be processed in the body,
for nutrition, excretion

Mouth, esophagus, epiglottis covers the trachea, stomach, small intestine, large intestine,
anus. Also involved: liver, pancreas, appendix.

Digestion begins in the mouth: salivary glands release amylase.

In the stomach, hydrochloric acid breaks down food, kills bacteria

Small intestine absorbs food, large absorbs water.

The liver recycles blood cells and produces bile (emulsifies fat and oil, stored in gall
bladder.)

Pancreas: digestive organ, produces enzymes

Impaction: overloading the bowels; caused by dehydration, not enough fiber in diet, not
going to the bathroom, lack of exercises and hypothyroidism = slow peristalsis,

Lysosome storage disease: a metabolic disorder; lack of enzymes that eliminate unwanted
substances from the body. Very common in the UAE. The nervous system is often
harmed.
Urinary system:

Function: elimination of wastes

Kidney, ureter, bladder, urethra

Kidney: filters blood, for solutes, water, etc and excretes urine

Ureter: a channel for the urine flow from kidney to bladder

Bladder: stretchable container, stores urine

Urethra: channel for urine flow between bladder and body surface

Nephrons: basic structural unit of kidney, filters blood, reabsorbs what’s needed, and
excretes the rest

Glomerulus: knot of capillaries, blood pressure forces fluids to enter kidney tubules,
waste and useful products and salts are both filtered out. The kidneys are told by
hormones how much water to expel (ADH!), how to balance pH. Kidneys send hormones
to bone marrow to stimulate or suppress red blood cell production.

Kidney stones – prevention: drink water, low salt diet, exercise. Vey painful to pass. May
have to be surgically removed.

Nephritis (kidney inflammation)

Cystitis (bladder infection)
Nervous system:

Function: detect and react to what is going on around us

Central nervous system (brain and spinal cord), peripheral nervous system

Myelinated neurons: send messages faster, more compact, don’t get tired quickly,
messages do not cross over to other neurons. Covered by Schwann cells as insulation.

Node of Ranvier.

Sodium potassium pump

Acetylcholine: excitatory to vertebrate skeletal muscles. Dopamine: excitatory. Serotonin:
inhibitory.
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Reflex response.

Autonomic nervous system: involuntary. Parasympathetic: pupils constrict, stimulates
salivary glands, heart beats slower, stomach and pancreas stimulation, gallbladder
stimulation, erection of genitals. Sympathetic: pupils dilate, heart beats faster, stimulates
adrenal medulla, inhibits salivary excretion, relaxes bronchi in lungs

Somatic nervous system: voluntary.

Forebrain: cerebrum, thalamus, hypothalamus. Hindbrain: pons, medulla, cerebellum.
Midbrain

Thalamus: sensory input

Amygdala: alerts you to danger, registers emotions
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Hypothalamus: connects brain to hormone control
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Olfactory bulb: smell

Frontal lobe: personality, decisions

Dyslexia: reversing/flipping letters when reading and writing, genetic, stress.

Addictive behavior – insula
What are viruses?

Toxic substance – living entity or? New theory. REF to PPT.
Sensory perception:

White = all colors

Sense of balance and motion in inner ear

Sense of taste: sweet, sour, salty, umami, picante
Endocrine system:

Hormones – chemical signal that is excreted into body fluids and communicates
regulatory messages in the body

Target cells: equipped to receive and respond to hormonal messages

Endocrine gland systems: no duct, excrete hormones directly into blood

Exocrine gland systems: have ducts, eg tear/salivary/digestive glands

Hypothalamus, pineal gland, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal
glands, pancreas, ovary, testis

Pituitary: oxytocin, ADH, FSH, LH

Pancreas: insulin, glucagon
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Ovaries: estrogen and progesterone
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Pineal gland: melatonin

Testes: androgen

Hormones work in two ways; it may trigger a hormone receptor on CSM and trigger a
response in cytoplasm or within cell – or it may pass into the cell itself and activate a
gene within the nucleus.

Hyperthyroidism (fast heart rate, difficulty gaining weight, many bowel movements,
bulging eyes) vs hypothyroidism (low heart rate, high body weight, puffy eyes, few
bowel movements, depression)

Homeostasis of blood glucose: pancreas stimulated to release insulin or glucagon, the
liver absorb or release glucose and body cells respond accordingly.

Blood sugar levels affecting brain: drop = fatigue, increase = dizzy/nervous

Type 1 diabetes: inherited

Type 2 diabetes: developed in 30’s

Symptoms of diabetes: tingling/loss of feeling in feet, blurry vision, fatigue, unexpected
weight loss, increased thirst, need to urinate

Prevent diabetes: eat well, exercise
Reproductive system:

Female: vagina, ovaries, fallopian tubes, egg/ovum, cervix (bottom of uterus), labia
minora and majora.
o
FSH hormone stimulates development of ovarian follicles (preovulation)
o
Luteinizing hormone = secretion of estrogen and progesterone into blood stream
(ovulation) … growth of endometrium lining = prep for pregnancy, this is shed if
egg is not fertilized (menstruation)
o
Childbirth is stimulated by estrogen and oxytocin (uterus begins to contract,
placenta makes prostaglandins and cervix dilates)
o

An ectopic pregnancy = in fallopian tube, not in uterus, must be aborted
Male: penis, sperm, testes, scrotum, prostate gland
o
Testes 2 main functions; spermatogenesis (stim. by FSH) and secretion of
testosterone into the blood stream (LH) = masculinization
o
Epididymis temporarily stores sperm
o
Seminal vesicle secretes semen (which sperm feeds on when it all collects in
prostate gland)
o
Cutting the vas deferens = vasectomy (muscular tube, pushes sperm to the
prostate gland)
Twins:

Monozygotic: one fertilized egg, splits into two embryos (identical)

Dizygotic: two separate eggs, fertilized by two sperms (fraternal)

Monozygotic are always the same sex, have very similar fingerprints, same DNA, same
placenta, same blood type

Dizygotic can be the same sex or different, different fingerprints, different DNA, different
placenta, blood type may not be the same

Nature vs nurture argument

Epigenetics: same genes expressed differently due to methylation of genes, caused by
external factors (stress, pollution)

Women who have twins: twins run in their family, may be older mothers (35+),

Folic acid consumption, if high (women) = likely to have twins

Fraternal twins: girl and boy – girl is usually larger at birth. Why? Hormones?

Conjoined twins: monozygotic, did not separate
Cancer:

Caused by mutation in cells… they mutate and begin to multiply rapidly.

Lack cell to cell adhesion, grow out of control, lack cell to cell contact inhibition, grow
strange proteins.

Asymmetrical, Borders uneven, Color, Diameter > 5mm

Can metastasize and spread to other organs and tissues

Carcinogenesis: something goes wrong and a cell becomes cancerous

Some cancers are hereditary (eg breast cancer)

Colon cancer is common…starts as a polyp
1/25/2015 9:19:00 PM
1/25/2015 9:19:00 PM