Download basic grammar rules - Morgan Park High School

BASIC GRAMMAR RULES
I.
8 Parts of SpeechA. Subjects
1. Noun
2. Pronoun
B. Verb
C. Adjective
D. Adverb
E. Preposition
F. Conjunction
G. Interjection
II.
Verbs – a word(s) used to express action, a condition, or state of being
A. Action Verbs – show the subject doing something. This also includes
mental action, such as thought, plan, and knew.
1. Transitive Verb – appears with a direct object (a person or thing
that receives the action of the verb).
a. Direct Objects – To identify a direct object, ask what or
whom receives the action of the verb.
b. Indirect Objects – comes between the verb and the direct
object (there CANNOT be an indirect object if there is no
direct object), and answers the questions to whom or what or
for whom or what.
2. Intransitive Verb – does not have a direct object
B. Linking Verbs – connects the subject to a word in the predicate. Some of
the most common linking verbs are:
1. is
2. am
3. are
4. was
5. were
6. be
7. will be
8. would be
9. are being
10. have been
11. could have been
C. Linking Verbs Contraction Forms – Have = ‘ve; has = ‘s; had = ‘d; am
= ‘m; is = ‘s; are = ‘re; will = ‘ll
D. Action and Linking Verbs – some words can be either an action verb or a
linking verb depending on its use in the sentence. Some of these dual
verbs are:
1. appears
2. became
3. felt
4. grows
5. looked
6. smell
7. sounded
8. tasted
9. turned
E. Auxiliary (Helping) Verbs – combined with verbs to form verb phrases.
Common forms of these type of these verb forms are:
1. be
2. had
3. do
4. might
5. would
6. will
7. must
8. could
III.
Pronouns and Antecedents-should agree in gender (male, female, or neuter)
and in number (singular, plural).
A. Personal Pronouns as Subjects – consists of I, you, he, she, it, we, they.
B. Personal Pronouns as Direct Objects and Indirect Objects – me, us,
you, him, her, it, them.
C. Personal Pronouns as Possessives – my, mine, our, ours, your, yours, his,
her, its, their theirs.
D. Personal Pronouns:
1. First person: I, me (singular); we, us, our (plural)
2. Second person: you
3. Third person: he, him she, her, it (sing.); they, them (plural)
IV.
Adjectives – modifies a noun or a pronoun; a, an, the are adjectives, but are
called articles because of their common usage and are not counted among
adjectives. Adjectives modify nouns, pronouns, and other adjectives.
A. Proper Adjective Suffixes
1. –an, -ean, -ian = one who, one that
2. –ese = relating to, originating in
3. –ern = make adjectives out of the directions north, south, east
west
B. Predicate Adjectives-modifies the subject of a clause and follows a
linking verb; predicate nouns (or nominatives) completes a linking verb
and identifies or explains the subject of that linking verb.
V.
Adverbs – words that tell how, when, where, and to what extent. Most verbs
end in ly; some like today, fast, and behind do not. The word not is an
adverb and tells how.
VI.
Prepositions-relates a noun or pronoun to some other part of the sentence.
The noun or pronoun that follows the preposition is the object of the
preposition. Some common prepositions are: aboard, about, above, across,
after, against, along, among, around, as, at, before, behind, below,
beneath, beside, besides, between, beyond, but (when it means except), by,
concerning, down, during except, for, from, in, inside, into, like, near, of,
off, on, onto, opposite, out, outside, over, past, since through, throughout,
till to, toward, under, underneath, until, up, upon, with, within, and
without.
VII.
Conjunctions - connects nouns, adjectives, verbs, pronouns, adverbs, and
prepositional phrases.
A. Coordinating Conjunctions – single connecting words; common ones
are: and, but, or, nor, for, yet
B. Correlative Conjunctions – pairs of connecting words; common ones
are: both/and; either/or; neither/not; not only/but also; and whether/or.
C. Subordinating Conjunctions – are used to introduce adverb clauses;
common ones are: after, although, as, as far as, as if, as long as, as soon
as, as though, because, before, even though, if, in order that, since, so that,
than, though, unless, until, when, whenever, where, wherever, and while.
VIII.
Interjections-a word or short expression that shows sudden strong emotion or
feeling. A strong interjection is followed by an exclamation point. A mild
interjection is set off with commas.
IX.
Sentences
A. Simple – consists of one independent clause
B. Compound – consists of two or more independent clauses
C. Complex – consists of one independent clause and one ore more
subordinate clauses
D. Compound-Complex – consists of two or more independent clauses and
one or more subordinate clauses
X.
Phrase- a group of related words that does not have a subject or a predicate; it
functions as a single part of speech.
A. Prepositional Phrase – used to modify, or describe, a noun or a pronoun.
B. Adjective Prepositional Phrase – a prepositional phrase that modifies a
noun or a pronoun and usually tells which one or what kind about the
word it modifies. While adjectives usually come just before the word it
modifies, adjective phrases usually come just after.
C. Adverb Prepositional Phrase – a prepositional phrase that modifies a
verb, an adjective, or an adverb; this will also tell how, when, where, or
to what extent.
D. Appositives and Appositive Phrases – a noun or pronoun that identifies
or renames another noun or pronoun; an appositive phrase consists of an
appositive and its modifiers.
E.
F.
G.
H.
1. Essential (Restrictive) Appositives – provides information that is
needed to identify the preceding noun or pronoun. It is not set off
by commas.
2. Nonessential (Nonrestrictive) Appositives – adds extra
information about a noun or pronoun whose meaning is already
clear. A nonessential appositive will be set off by commas.
Participles/Participle Phrases – a verb form that functions as an
adjective; it modifies nouns and pronouns. A participial phrase consists of
a participle plus its modifiers and complements.
1. Present Participles – adds ing to the base verb. It expresses
continuing action in the present or the past. When used as the
main verb of a sentence, it must be used with a form of to be.
2. Past Participles – adds ed or d to the base verb form.
3. Absolutes – functions as its own participial case, in that it
modifies everything that an adverb can modify. Example: They
had a pleasant trip, all things considered.
Gerunds/Gerund Phrases – a verb form that ends in ing and functions as
a noun; a gerund phrase consists of a gerund, its modifiers, and
complements. Gerunds, like nouns, can function as subjects, direct
objects, indirect objects, predicate nominatives, and objects of the
preposition. Tip: To not confuse a gerund with a present participle,
replace the gerund or gerund phrase with the word something.
Infinitive/Infinitive Phrase – a verb form, usually beginning with the
word to, that can act as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. An infinitive
phrase consists of an infinitive, its modifiers, and complements. Like
nouns, infinitives can be used as a subject, direct object, or predicate
nominative.
Absolute Phrase - an absolute phrase is a modifier (quite often a
participle), or a modifier and a few other words, that attaches to a sentence
or a noun, with no conjunction. an absolute phrase cannot contain a finite
verb. Absolute phrases usually consist of a noun and a modifier that
modifies this noun, NOT another noun in the sentence. Absolute phrases
are optional in sentences, i.e., they can be removed without damaging the
grammatical integrity of the sentence. Since absolute phrases are optional
in the sentence, they are often set off from the sentence with commas or,
less often, with dashes. In explaining absolute phrases, it might be easier
to say that they modify entire sentences, rather than one word. This is an
important concept, since many similar phrases in English grammar modify
other words. For example, adjectives modify nouns, and adverbs can
modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. That said, however, in some
cases, it seems to make more sense to say that absolute phrases modify
nouns. An example of an absolute phrase is: All things being equal,
the active voice tends to be correct more often than the passive on
standardized tests.
XI.
Clauses – a group of words that contains a subject and a verb.
A. Independent ( or Main) Clauses – expresses a complete thought and can
stand alone as a sentence.
B. Subordinate (or Dependent) Clauses – contains a subject and a verb but
does not express a complete thought and cannot stand alone. There are
numerous types of subordinate clauses.
1. Adjective Clauses – used as an adjective to modify a noun or a
pronoun; it is introduced by a relative pronoun (that, who, whom,
whose, which) or by a relative adverb (where, when, why).
a. Essential (or Restrictive) Adjective Clauses – provides
information that is necessary to identify the preceding noun or
pronoun. Essential adjective clauses are not set off by
commas. Tip: Use that to introduce essential clauses.
b. Nonessential (or Nonrestrictive) Adjective Clauses – adds
additional information about a noun or pronoun whose
meaning is already clear. Nonessential adjective clauses ARE
SET OFF by commas. Use which to introduce nonessential
clauses.
2. Adverb Clauses – modifies a verb, and adjective, or an adverb.
Words used to introduce adverb clauses are when, because,
than, where, after, before, although. These do not require a
comma before the subordinating conjunction.
3. Noun Clauses – used as a noun which means it can function as a
subject, a complement (direct object, indirect object, or
predicate nominative), or and object of the preposition. Tip: If
you can substitute the word someone or something for a clause
in a sentence, the clause is a noun clause. A noun clause may be
introduced by a subordinating conjunction (that, how, when,
where, whether, why) or by a pronoun (what, whatever, who,
whom, whoever, whomever, which, whichever). WATCH OUT:
The introductory word in a noun clause is sometimes omitted.
XII.
Punctuation – a complete sentence ends in a period (used w/statements,
polite requests, and commands), a question mark (used w/inquiries), or an
exclamation point (used to show strong feeling and urgent commands).
A. Comma
1. Use before a coordinating conjunction that joins sentences.
2. Use to separate items in a series.
3. Use after certain introductory word and word groups.
4. Use to set off most interrupting words and expressions.
B. Semicolon
1. Use to join sentences that are not connected by a coordinating
conjunction.
2. Use to join sentences connected by a conjunctive adverb or
transitional phrase.
3. Use to join items in a series when one or more items have a
comma.
C. Colon
1. Use to call attention to what follows.
2. Use after the salutation in a formal or business letter.
D. Apostrophe
1. Add an s to form the possessive of singular words and plurals
that do not end in s.
2. To form the possessive of plural words ending in s.
3. To form the possessive of indefinite pronouns but not personal
pronouns.
4. Use in a contraction in place of the missing letter or letters.
E. Quotation Marks
Use to enclose a speaker’s exact words.
F. Punctuating a Title
1. Use to enclose the titles of short works: short stories, poems,
songs, articles, chapters
2. Use italics or underlining with the titles of longer works: books,
plays, films, magazines, newspapers, music cds.
XIII. Capitalization
A. Capitalize the first word of a sentence.
B. Capitalize the first word in a quotation.
C. Capitalize the pronoun I.
D. Capitalize proper nouns, their abbreviations, and proper adjectives.
E. Capitalize the first, last, and main words of a title.
F. In business and personal letters, capitalize the first word and all nouns in
the salutation. Capitalize only the first word in the closing.
XIV. Spelling Rules
A. ie and ei – i before e except after c, or when sounded like a as in neighbor
and weigh.
B. Prefixes – when adding a prefix, do not change the spelling of the original
word.
C. Silent e – drop the e to add a suffix with a vowel; keep the e to add a
suffix beginning with a consonant.
D. Ending in y – when the word ends in a vowel and y, keep the y when
adding a suffix; when words end in a consonant and a y, change the y to i.
E. Adding ly or ness – do not change the spelling of the original word; when
adding ly or ness to a word ending in y, follow the rule for words ending
in y.
F. Double a final consonant before a suffix beginning with a vowel.
G. Plural Nouns – the singular is the form that means only one; the plural is
the form that means more than one.
1. Add s to the singular to form a plural.
2. For nouns ending in s, sh, ch, or x: add es to form the plural.
3. For most nouns ending in f: change f to v and add es to form the
plural.
4. For 3 nouns ending in fe (knife, life, wife): change f to v and add
s to form the plural.
5. For nouns ending in y: if the letter before y is a vowel (a, e, i, o,
u) add s to form the plural; if the letter before y is a consonant,
change y to i and add es.
6. For nouns ending in o: add s in most cases; add es to the
following nouns: echo, hero, potato, tomato, veto.
7. Some nouns form their plurals irregularly:
child = children;
crisis = crises
datum = data;
deer = deer
foot = feet;
goose = geese
louse = lice;
man = men
medium = media;
moose = moose
mouse = mice;
ox = oxen
parenthesis = parentheses;
series = series;
shrimp = shrimp
syllabus = syllabi;
thesis = theses
tooth = teeth;
woman = women