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Chapter 8, Section 1 Divided Loyalties Conflict is often brought on by different beliefs, experiences, and values. Conflicts between the North and South began to grow in the 1800s, and few people seemed to agree on solutions to the problems. The industrial Northern states wanted high tariffs; the agricultural Southern states wanted low tariffs. A tariff is a tax charged on an imported or an exported product. Governments use tariffs to help products made in their own countries. There were also differences on whether federal or state authority should prevail. This issue was known as States’ Rights. The federal government thought there should be a uniformity of laws. The state governments thought they should be able to pass any law as long as it wasn’t unconstitutional. By the 1850s, industry had replaced agriculture in the North, and immigrants provided cheap labor. More and more people left their farms and began to work in factories. It was the main reason that slavery died out in the North. Southern states believed that slavery was essential to their economy and to their culture. Northerners wanted to end slavery, but Southerners thought that outsiders shouldn’t have the power to threaten their way of life. When California applied for statehood in 1849, it upset the balance of free and slave states. The southern states threatened to secede, or break away from, the Union. To gain the support of southern states for the admission of “free” California, Congress passed the Fugitive Slave Act in 1850. It required all citizens of all states to help recover runaways. But it also organized the New Mexico and Utah Territories without mentioning slavery. Many northerners refused to obey the Act and continued to help slaves escape the South. Abolitionists were people who believed slavery was wrong and worked to bring it to an end. The Underground Railroad was a secret network to help slaves escape to Canada, where slavery was illegal. Harriet Beecher Stowe’s novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin added to Northern efforts to end slavery. Although it was a work of fiction, it dramatized the harsh reality of slavery. The Kansas-Nebraska Act provided for popular sovereignty, or the right of the people to decide the slavery issue for themselves. Violence broke out between abolitionists and pro-slavery groups. Kansas also tried to claim all lands south to the 36o30’ line, but the Cherokee strongly objected. Kansas withdrew the claim. But now there was a large rectangle of land between Kansas, Colorado Territory, New Mexico Territory, Texas, and the Cherokee Outlet. It was called “No Man’s Land,” and became part of Oklahoma Territory in 1890. More fuel was added to the slavery debate by the Supreme Court ruling in the Dred Scott case. The court ruled slaves were “beings of an inferior order (with) no rights which white men were bound to respect.” It meant that Congress had no right to prohibit slavery in the United States. The presidential election of 1860 brought the slavery crisis to a head. The Democratic Party split, choosing both a Northern and a Southern candidate. A third group, the Constitutional Union Party, further fractured the vote. John C. Breckinridge (left), Southern Democrat (20%) [Pro-slavery] Stephen Douglas (center), Northern Democrat (30%) [Popular sovereignty] John Bell (right), Constitutional Union (10%) [Status quo] The election of the Republican candidate Abraham Lincoln, a northerner who favored abolition, caused several slaves states to secede. Within a few weeks, South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas all withdrew from the Union. In all, 11 southern states formed a new country called the Confederate States of America. In April 1861, the War Between the States broke out at Fort Sumter, near Charleston, South Carolina. Both sides were confident of a quick victory. Chapter 8, Section 2 Indian Territory Joins the Confederacy Jefferson Davis, president of the Confederacy, was well aware that Indian Territory was rich in resources. He had been part of the Leavenworth Expedition in 1834. There were cattle herds for food, lead deposits for ammunition, plentiful supplies of salt, and men for the Confederate Army. When Arkansas secessionists took Ft. Smith and cut off supplies to the Oklahoma forts, the Union troops abandoned Indian Territory and marched northward into Kansas. Many in the Five Tribes wanted to remain neutral, or not take either side, in the Civil War. But the withdrawal of federal troops left the Indians to fend for themselves. Their choice was to join the Confederates or fight them on their own. The Confederates chose Albert Pike as their Commissioner of Indian Affairs. Pike, along with the military commander of Indian Territory, Brigadier General Ben McCulloch, was sent to persuade the Natives to join them in their fight against the North. Albert Pike Pike was an Arkansas lawyer who was well-liked by the Five Tribes. The aging John Ross refused to join the Confederates. He thought the war would destroy his people. Pike continued his mission, signing treaties with factions of the Creek, Chickasaw, and Choctaw. The Seminole, Osage, and others also joined. Most of the treaties allowed the Confederacy take over guardianship of the tribes and to be responsible for all obligations to the Indians. Realizing the Cherokee were standing alone, Ross reluctantly signed too. The first Native American fighting regiment was the Cherokee Mounted Rifles. The military leader of the Cherokee was Stand Watie, the last survivor of the Ridge faction, who had signed away Cherokee lands in Georgia. Other Native regiments quickly organized. Col. Douglas Cooper of Texas formed the Choctaw and Chickasaw Mounted Rifles. The Confederacy built only two outposts in the I.T. The first, called Fort Davis, was near Muskogee . Named for the Rebel President, they were forced to move it after just five months. It was re-established as Fort McCulloch, on the Blue River south of Boggy Depot. Its new name honored the Territory’s military commander. Pike’s mission through Indian Territory had reopened old wounds. Indians who supported the Union now felt overpowered by those who favored the Confederacy. The Upper and Lower Creek were divided before removal, and the War would divide them further. The Upper Creek who supported the Union were led by an elderly chief named Opothleyahola. To avoid a confrontation with Douglas Cooper’s Confederate troops, he tried to lead his tribe and more than 6,500 others north toward Kansas, which was a Union state. Though pictured here as a young man, Opothleyahola was 81 years old when he led the exodus to Kansas. Confederate forces attacked the Loyal Creek at the Battle of Round Mountain in November 1861. The two sides battled to a draw, and the Indians escaped. But the weather turned bitterly cold, and supplies dwindled. The Southern troops attacked again at Chusto Talasah, just north of Tulsa. Once again, the skirmish ended in a stalemate. The encounter is also known as the Battle of Caving Banks. A final attack at Chustenahlah scattered the natives. The dead were left behind and the wounded now faced a blizzard. The refugees, many hungry and barefoot, continued north toward Kansas. Opothleyahola survived, but never recovered. He died two years later. The Confederates won most of the battles in the War’s first year. One of the Union’s biggest wins would affect Indian Territory. In March 1862, Union General Samuel Curtis won the Battle of Pea Ridge in Arkansas. The Confederate Army greatly outnumbered the Union’s, but they sustained devastating casualties, including General McCulloch. In the summer of 2014, I visited Elkhorn Tavern, the site of The Battle of Pea Ridge. The loss at Pea Ridge weakened the Confederacy. It kept Missouri from seceding and allowed the Union to re-enter Indian Territory. Union General James Blunt took command of troops in Kansas and Arkansas, and formed the Indian Expedition to retake Oklahoma. Col. William Weer’s soldiers won the Battle of Locust Grove and took control of Fort Gibson and Tahlequah. They were welcomed by Chief John Ross, who was taken into protective custody. The Union troops then withdrew to Kansas. On Jan. 1, 1863, President Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which freed the slaves in the Confederate states. Although it didn’t apply to Indian Territory, thousands of African Americans now joined the fight against the South. The First Kansas Colored Infantry and the 11th Regiment United States Colored Troops from Arkansas were organized to fight the Confederates in Indian Territory. Meanwhile, at the Cowskin Prairie Council in 1863, the Cherokee withdrew from the Confederacy, declared Stand Watie and his men outlaws, abolished slavery, and re-elected John Ross. Kansas created a new unit of Native American soldiers called the Indian Home Guards. On July 2, 1863, the First Kansas Colored Infantry, two Union units, and the Home Guards set out to escort a supply caravan to Fort Gibson. As they approached Cabin Creek, Stand Watie and his soldiers were waiting to ambush them. The Battle of Cabin Creek was the first military engagement of the Civil War in which black, white, and Indian troops fought side by side. Watie’s soldiers retreated and the supplies were delivered. The morning of July 17, 1863 dawned with a summer rain in Indian Territory. Union troops were tired and hungry, but were encouraged by news of great Union victories two weeks before at Gettysburg in Pennsylvania, and at Vicksburg, on the Mississippi River. Texas forces under General Douglas Cooper and Ft. Smith troops under General William Cabell were given orders to attack Fort Gibson. Gen. Douglas Cooper Gen. William Cabell General Blunt decided to attack first, before Cooper and Cabell could join up. The Union’s 3,000 soldiers would face more than 6,000 Confederates. The Battle of Honey Springs was the largest, bloodiest, and most decisive in Indian Territory. After the Union victory, Blunt said of The First Kansas Colored Infantry, “In the hottest of the fight, they never once faltered… Too much praise can not be awarded them for their gallantry.” After the war, Gen. William Cabell became a lawyer and later, Mayor of Dallas, Texas. In 1856, he had married Harriet Amanda Rector. Her father, and Indian agent, nicknamed her “Shingo,” meaning “Singing Bird.” Their son, John Cabell, married Phoebe Lee, and their daughter was Shingo Marie Cabell. Shingo Marie Cabell was my grandmother. Gen. Blunt decided to defeat the Confederates in Indian Territory once and for all. He routed them in the Battle of Perryville, then burned the town to the ground. Perryville was located on The Texas Road near present-day McAlester. After 1863, the only activity in Indian Territory was guerrilla warfare, or small military groups that attack and annoy the enemy. The most successful guerrillas were led by Colonel William Quantrill, a Confederate raider based in Kansas. One of his men was Jesse James. Neither the North or the South could have anticipated the number of Native refugees. Thousands on both sides tried to avoid further conflict by heading north into Kansas or south into Texas. On April 9, 1865, the South surrendered at Appomattox Court House, a town in Virginia. Indian leaders met at Council Grove to offer a peace plan to the Union, but it was ignored. The last Confederate General to surrender was Stand Watie, on June 23, 1865, at Doaksville. Indian Territory had been devastated. Thousands were dead. Livestock, fields, and homes were completely destroyed. Once again, Indians had to find a way to rebuild their lives.