Download The Civil War in Indian Territory Divided Loyalties A Conflict Coming

The Civil War in Indian Territory
I.
II.
Divided Loyalties
A. A Conflict Coming? – Tensions were growing in the country over a variety of issues such as: tariffs on
imported and exported goods and regional differences on federal versus state authority, which became
known as an issue of state’s rights. In the North, cheap labor was provided by thousands of immigrants.
While most people in the south lived on small farms and owned no slaves, a few who were wealthy and
powerful strongly believed that African slaves were essential to their economy and lifestyle. Due to
their larger population, the North had more representation in the House of Representatives; the South
saw this as a threat to their way of life.
B. Increasing Tensions – Slavery died out in the North because of cheap immigrant labor and the moral
beliefs of some. If cotton had not been so profitable, it might have died out in the South before a
conflict occurred. However, tensions were rising and several attempts were made to maintain the
balance of power in Congress and maintain the peace.
a. In 1820, the Missouri Compromise established a dividing line. Threatened by John C. Calhoun’s
talk of southern succession, the Compromise of 1850 tried to resolve the issue. However,
northern abolitionists (people against slavery) ignored the fugitive slave act and became even
more active in the Underground Railroad (a secret network of safe places for slaves to hide as
they escaped). In 1854, the Kansas-Nebraska Act was passed which allowed for popular
sovereignty (the people deciding for themselves by vote) to determine the issue of slavery. This
led to violence and the Kansas Territory being known as “Bleeding Kansas”. Then, the Dred Scott
ruling by the Supreme Court found that slaves had no rights which meant Congress had no legal
right to stop slavery.
C. The Election of 1860 – tensions come to a head
a. The Democratic Party split over the issue of slavery. Northern – Stephen A. Douglas; Southern –
John C. Breckenridge.
b. The Republican Party, which was dominated by Northerners, nominated Abraham Lincoln who
opposed slavery, supported free western homesteads, protective tariffs, and a transcontinental
railroad. With a split Democratic Party and newly formed Constitutional Union Party, Lincoln
won 40% of the popular vote and 60% of the electoral vote which all came from Northern or
Western states.
c. Almost immediately, southern states began carrying out their threat to succeed; South Carolina
withdrew on December 20th 1860. In February of 1861, South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida,
Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas formed the Confederate States of America. In April
1861, war broke out at Fort Sumter. Arkansas, Tennessee, North Carolina, and Virginia joined
the Confederacy.
War in Indian Territory
A. Indian Territory was rich in resources including: horses, cattle, grain, and lead for making ammunition,
salt, and men who could become soldiers. It was also valuable to the South as a buffer and a central
base west of the Mississippi. In February of 1861, officials from Texas approached the Five Tribes about
supporting the Confederacy, but many declined because they decided, “simply to do nothing, to keep
quiet and to comply with their treaties.” The Civil War, however, quickly spilled into Indian Territory. Of
the many military forts in Indian Territory, only three were manned in the spring of 1861 - Fort Washita,
Fort Arbuckle, and Fort Cobb. In April 1861, secessionists (those who supported withdrawing from the
union) seized military supplies headed for the Forts. All three Forts were abandoned
B. Taking Sides? Tribes had different opinions – side with North, side with South, remain neutral.
a. South – Tribes would loss the money promised to them by the Federal government but many
felt abandoned by them already. Federal troops had withdrawn so the tribes had to either fight
the Confederacy on their own or accept it. Some tribes were led to believe that, if the South
won, they would be allowed to return to their homelands.
b. Albert Pike was appointed Commissioner of Indian Affairs. The Cherokee Chief, John Ross, said
that he refused to destroy his people for the “white man’s” quarrel. The Creek, Chickasaw,
Choctaw, Seminole, Caddo, Washita, Osage, and Shawnee all signed treaties. While different,
these treaties all included that the Confederacy would assume guardianship of the Tribes and
become responsible for obligations to the Tribes imposed by former treaties with the United
States. Not wanting to stand alone, John Ross reluctantly signed a treaty with the Confederacy.
Cherokee Mounted Rifles, Choctaw and Chickasaw Mounted Rifles
C. War on Indian Land - The Native Americans who supported the Union or wanted to remain neutral felt
overpowered.
a. The Loyal Creek – Despite the Creek treaty with the Confederacy, Upper Creek leader
Opothleyahola, a large number of Creek followers, and about 6,500 from other tribes appealed
to the “Great Father” in Washington for help. Aware of the Loyal Creek’s appeal to Washington,
Cooper’s 2,000 man regiment attacked the “Loyal” on November 19th, 1861 just northwest of
Tulsa); when the skirmish stopped due to darkness, the “Loyal” retreated north and left most of
their possessions behind. On December 9th, Cooper again attacked the “Loyal” and it resulted in
another stalemate. On December 26th, the “Loyal” were attacked again near Skiatook and
defeated. They fled north; the dead and wounded were left to freeze in the blizzard.
b. Pea Ridge – the first half of the war saw many Confederate victories; however, the Union won a
decisive victory at Pea Ridge. This caused the Confederate leaders to retreat into Indian
Territory, abandon Fort Davis, and set up Fort McCulloch
c. The Indian Expedition – This loss weakened the Confederate position in the west. Union leaders
summoned troops from Wisconsin, Ohio, Indiana, Kansas, and two regiments of the loyal Native
Americans to form the Indian Expedition to regain control of the Indian Territory. After a few
skirmishes, Colonel William Weer faced the Confederate forces at Locust Grove on July 3rd 1862.
Confederate forces fell back under heavy artillery fire and Union soldiers took over Fort Gibson
and Tahlequah, where they were welcomed by a grateful Chief John Ross. However, poor
leadership and a counterattack sent the Union forces back to Kansas.
d. African American Troops – Frederick Douglass called for African Americans to participate in the
Civil War. The War Department authorized it and, then, President Lincoln endorsed it in 1863.
265 African American soldiers in the 11th Regiment, United States Colored Troops, were sent to
Indian Territory to guard government stock and hay at Gunther’s Prairie. They were attacked by
about 400 Confederates but held their position and forced the Confederates to retreat.
e. The Battle at Cabin Creek – Colonel William Philips, left in charge of the Union Indian troops, had
been combating raids, helping find food for the Native Americans who stayed, and trying to
convince the Cherokee to return to the recaptured land. In February 1863, Union Cherokee
met, elected John Ross as their chief and Thomas Pegg as acting chief, abolished slavery, and
declared Stand Watie and his followers outlaws. By April, the Union had recaptured Fort Gibson;
in July, a Union supply train was headed for Fort Gibson but were captured by Watie’s regiment
at a river. After a bloody and costly fight, the Union infantry held off Watie’s men and the
supplies went to Fort Gibson as planned. This Battle, the Battle of Cabin Creek, was the first
engagement of the Civil War in which African American, white, and Native American troops
fought side by side.
f.
The Battle of Honey Springs – In July 1863, Union General Blunt heard of a Confederate plan to
join two Confederate forces together to attack Union troops at For Gibson. Wanting to attack
first, he began moving artillery and men toward Honey Springs, a Confederate supply depot.
After a small skirmish early on July 17th, a two-hour battle ensued. Many Texans were killed and
Confederate forces retreated; before retreating, they set their storage buildings on fire but
Blunt’s men were able to save most of the supplies. The Battle of Honey Springs was the largest,
bloodiest, and most decisive Civil War battle in the Indian Territory.
g. The Battle at Perryville – Trying to defeat the Confederates in Indian Territory once and for all,
Blunt attacked on August 26th. The Confederates hastily retreated; Blunt’s forces took a few
supplies and then burned the town.
h. Guerilla Fighting – From the fall of Fort Smith in September 1863 to the Confederate surrender
in Indian Territory in 1865, the only warfare in Indian Territory was guerilla activity. A guerrilla is
a member of a small military group that harasses the enemy. Colonel William Quantrill, a
Confederate raider base out of Kansas, roamed Indian Territory.
i. Refugees – Neither side anticipated many Native American refugees. However, there were
many. About 7,000 of the “Loyal” eventually made it to Kansas. Confederate Native American
refugees sought safety in Choctaw camps or across the Red River. Following the Confederate
defeat at Honey Springs, the Cherokee and Creek quickly tried to get out of the way of the Union
troops. Confederate Brigadier General Samuel Maxey attempted to care for the refugees which
sometimes numbered almost 14,000.
D. An End to the Fighting
a. At Appomattox Court House on April 9th 1865, General Robert E Lee surrendered to Ulysses S
Grant. The last Confederate surrender was General Stand Watie on June 23rd 1865. Before the
war formally ended, the Creek tried to arrange a General Council of all the Natives at Council
Grove to present a united front to the North but Union forces did not approve of the meeting.
The Five Tribes Confederate representatives met and adopted a compact of peace to present to
the US. However, it made little difference. Indian Territory was devastated and the Native
Americans would have to rebuild their lives again.