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Chapter 5
Learning
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Types of Learning
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Classical Conditioning
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Operant Conditioning
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Observational Learning
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Cognitive Factors in Learning
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Biological, Cultural, and Psychological Factors
in Learning
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Learning & Behaviorism
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Learning
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Behaviorism
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Systematic, relatively permanent change in
behavior that occurs through experience
Theory of learning that focuses solely on
observable behaviors
Discounts importance of mental activity
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Types of Learning
Associative Learning & Conditioning
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Classical Conditioning
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Association between two stimuli
Operant Conditioning
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Association between behavior and consequence
Observational Learning
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Observing and imitating another’s behavior
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Classical Conditioning
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Reflex: Automatic, without prior learning
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Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
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Unconditioned Response (UCR)
Learning: Association, after pairing of stimuli
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Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
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Conditioned Response (CR)
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Classical Conditioning
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Classical Conditioning
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Acquisition: Learning of connection between UCS & CS
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UCS & CS close in time
CS as reliable indicator of UCS
Generalization
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Continguity
Contingency
Stimulus similar to CS elicits response similar to CR
Discrimination
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Process of learning to respond only to some stimuli
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Classical Conditioning
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Extinction
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Spontaneous Recovery
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Recurrence of CR after time delay, without
further conditioning
Renewal
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Weakening of CR when UCS is absent
Recovery of CR in novel context
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Strength of Classically
Conditioned Responses
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Classical Conditioning in Humans
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Explaining and eliminating fears
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Watson & Rayner: Little Albert
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Counterconditioning
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Systematic Densitization
Explaining Pleasant Emotions
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Aversive Conditioning
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Classical Conditioning in Humans
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Placebo Effect
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Immune and Endocrine Systems
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Immunosupression
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Taste Aversion Learning
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Drug Habituation
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Operant Conditioning
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Classical Conditioning
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Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning
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Based on involuntary responses
Explains voluntary behaviors
B. F. Skinner
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Consequences change probability of behavior
Operant = Behavior
Consequences contingent on behavior
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Operant Conditioning
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Thorndike’s Law of Effect
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The Skinner Box
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Positive outcomes strengthen behavior.
Negative outcomes weaken behavior.
Controlled conditions to study operant conditioning
Operant (Lever press by rat)  Consequence (food)
Shaping
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Rewarding approximations of desired behaviors
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Principles of Reinforcement
Reinforcement increases probability of behavior.
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Positive Reinforcement
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Negative Reinforcement
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Innately satisfying
Secondary Reinforcer
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Removal (taking away) of something unpleasant
Primary Reinforcer
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Presentation (adding) of something pleasant
Acquires positive value through experience
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Principles of Reinforcement
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Generalization
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Discrimination
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Performing reinforced behavior in different situation
Responding to signal that behavior will (or will not)
be reinforced
Extinction
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Behavior no longer reinforced decreased in frequency
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Schedules of Reinforcement
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Continuous Reinforcement
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Partial Reinforcement
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Behavior is reinforced every time it occurs.
Reinforcer follows behavior only a portion of the time.
Partial Reinforcement Schedules
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Ratio (number of behaviors) vs. Interval (time elapsed)
Fixed (predictable) vs. Variable (unpredictable)
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Schedules of Reinforcement
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Fixed Ratio
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Variable Ratio
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Based on average (unpredictable) number of behaviors
Fixed Interval
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Based on set number of behaviors
Rewarding behavior after fixed amount of time passes
Variable Interval
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Rewarding after variable amount of time passes
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Schedules of Reinforcement
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Punishment
Punishment decreases likelihood of behavior.
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Positive Punishment
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Presentation (adding) of something unpleasant
Negative Punishment
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Removal (taking away) of something pleasant
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Example: Time Out
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Operant Conditioning: Timing
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Immediate vs. Delayed Reinforcement
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Immediate vs. Delayed Punishment
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Waiting for delayed, but more highly valued, reinforcers
Immediate more effective, but delayed can have effect
Immediate Reinforcement vs. Delayed Punishment
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Immediate consequences usually win
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Applied Behavior Analysis
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Also called behavior modification
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Use of operant conditioning principles to
change human behavior
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All human behavior understood as being
influenced by rewards and punishments
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Bandura’s Observational Learning
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Also called imitation or modeling
Learning when behavior is observed and imitated
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Vicarious Reinforcement & Vicarious Punishment
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Cognitive Factors in Learning
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Purposive Behavior (Tolman)
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Behavior is goal-directed.
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Expectancy Learning and Information
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Latent (Implicit) Learning
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Unreinforced learning not immediately
reflected in behavior
Study: Rats in a maze
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Cognitive Factors in Learning
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Insight Learning (Köhler)
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Studies of Apes
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Problem solving in which sudden insight,
or understanding, occurs
Thinking “outside the box”
“Stick Problem”
“Box Problem”
Duncker Candle Task
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Insight Learning
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Biological Constraints in Learning
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Structure of an organism’s body . . .
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Instinctive Drift
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Tendency of animals to revert to instinctive
behavior that interferes with learning
Preparedness
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Permits certain kinds of learning
Inhibits other kinds of learning
Species-specific biological predisposition to
learn in certain ways but not others
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Cultural Influences in Learning
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Principles of conditioning and learning are
universal.
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Culture can affect the degree to which
various learning processes are used.
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Culture can determine content of learning.
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Psychological Constraints in Learning
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Mindset
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Fixed Mindset
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Describes way beliefs about ability dictate goals
What we think we can learn  What we do learn
Belief that qualities cannot change
Growth Mindset
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Belief that qualities can change/improve through effort
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