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Chapter 5 Learning 1 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2010 Chapter Preview Types of Learning Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Observational Learning Cognitive Factors in Learning Biological, Cultural, and Psychological Factors in Learning 2 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2010 Learning & Behaviorism Learning Behaviorism 3 Systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience Theory of learning that focuses solely on observable behaviors Discounts importance of mental activity Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2010 Types of Learning Associative Learning & Conditioning Classical Conditioning Association between two stimuli Operant Conditioning Association between behavior and consequence Observational Learning 4 Observing and imitating another’s behavior Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2010 Classical Conditioning 5 Reflex: Automatic, without prior learning Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) Unconditioned Response (UCR) Learning: Association, after pairing of stimuli Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Conditioned Response (CR) Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2010 Classical Conditioning 6 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2010 Classical Conditioning Acquisition: Learning of connection between UCS & CS UCS & CS close in time CS as reliable indicator of UCS Generalization Continguity Contingency Stimulus similar to CS elicits response similar to CR Discrimination 7 Process of learning to respond only to some stimuli Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2010 Classical Conditioning Extinction Spontaneous Recovery Recurrence of CR after time delay, without further conditioning Renewal 8 Weakening of CR when UCS is absent Recovery of CR in novel context Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2010 Strength of Classically Conditioned Responses 9 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2010 Classical Conditioning in Humans Explaining and eliminating fears Watson & Rayner: Little Albert Counterconditioning Systematic Densitization Explaining Pleasant Emotions 10 Aversive Conditioning Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2010 Classical Conditioning in Humans Placebo Effect Immune and Endocrine Systems Immunosupression Taste Aversion Learning Drug Habituation 11 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2010 Operant Conditioning Classical Conditioning Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning Based on involuntary responses Explains voluntary behaviors B. F. Skinner 12 Consequences change probability of behavior Operant = Behavior Consequences contingent on behavior Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2010 Operant Conditioning Thorndike’s Law of Effect The Skinner Box Positive outcomes strengthen behavior. Negative outcomes weaken behavior. Controlled conditions to study operant conditioning Operant (Lever press by rat) Consequence (food) Shaping 13 Rewarding approximations of desired behaviors Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2010 Principles of Reinforcement Reinforcement increases probability of behavior. Positive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement Innately satisfying Secondary Reinforcer 14 Removal (taking away) of something unpleasant Primary Reinforcer Presentation (adding) of something pleasant Acquires positive value through experience Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2010 Principles of Reinforcement Generalization Discrimination Performing reinforced behavior in different situation Responding to signal that behavior will (or will not) be reinforced Extinction 15 Behavior no longer reinforced decreased in frequency Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2010 Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous Reinforcement Partial Reinforcement Behavior is reinforced every time it occurs. Reinforcer follows behavior only a portion of the time. Partial Reinforcement Schedules 16 Ratio (number of behaviors) vs. Interval (time elapsed) Fixed (predictable) vs. Variable (unpredictable) Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2010 Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio Variable Ratio Based on average (unpredictable) number of behaviors Fixed Interval Based on set number of behaviors Rewarding behavior after fixed amount of time passes Variable Interval 17 Rewarding after variable amount of time passes Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2010 Schedules of Reinforcement 18 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2010 Punishment Punishment decreases likelihood of behavior. Positive Punishment Presentation (adding) of something unpleasant Negative Punishment 19 Removal (taking away) of something pleasant Example: Time Out Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2010 Operant Conditioning: Timing Immediate vs. Delayed Reinforcement Immediate vs. Delayed Punishment Waiting for delayed, but more highly valued, reinforcers Immediate more effective, but delayed can have effect Immediate Reinforcement vs. Delayed Punishment 20 Immediate consequences usually win Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2010 Applied Behavior Analysis Also called behavior modification Use of operant conditioning principles to change human behavior All human behavior understood as being influenced by rewards and punishments 21 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2010 Bandura’s Observational Learning Also called imitation or modeling Learning when behavior is observed and imitated Vicarious Reinforcement & Vicarious Punishment 22 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2010 Cognitive Factors in Learning Purposive Behavior (Tolman) Behavior is goal-directed. Expectancy Learning and Information Latent (Implicit) Learning 23 Unreinforced learning not immediately reflected in behavior Study: Rats in a maze Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2010 Cognitive Factors in Learning Insight Learning (Köhler) Studies of Apes 24 Problem solving in which sudden insight, or understanding, occurs Thinking “outside the box” “Stick Problem” “Box Problem” Duncker Candle Task Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2010 Insight Learning 25 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2010 Biological Constraints in Learning Structure of an organism’s body . . . Instinctive Drift Tendency of animals to revert to instinctive behavior that interferes with learning Preparedness 26 Permits certain kinds of learning Inhibits other kinds of learning Species-specific biological predisposition to learn in certain ways but not others Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2010 Cultural Influences in Learning Principles of conditioning and learning are universal. Culture can affect the degree to which various learning processes are used. Culture can determine content of learning. 27 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2010 Psychological Constraints in Learning Mindset Fixed Mindset Describes way beliefs about ability dictate goals What we think we can learn What we do learn Belief that qualities cannot change Growth Mindset 28 Belief that qualities can change/improve through effort Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2010