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Grammar Almanac
Written by Tyler Eubank
Edited by: Gary Williams
Tara Williams
Gina Wang
Lily Wu
Contributor: J.C. Guedon
Hello! Welcome to our Grammar Almanac!
There are two purposes for the “Grammar Almanac.” The first is to supply teachers of
“Step Into Grammar” with a quick reference in order to make class time more efficient.
The second goal is to help teachers of Step Ahead gain a fuller understanding of the
material.
How to use this book?
The grammar topics are listed alphabetically. There is also a table of contents that lists
the topics by the “Step Into Grammar” book and the unit in which they are found. There
is quite a lot of jargon used in the text of this book. However, there is a glossary at the
end of the book. Any words in bold throughout the book are found in the glossary.
Step Into Grammar
When teaching Step Into Grammar, this book assumes that there are a few basic steps in a
higher-level grammar lesson. These steps are as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Name of the topic
Defining terms
Key points
Timeline (for tenses) and equations
Practice
In each entry, you will find:
1. A definition of the word
2. Key points
3. Areas of difficulty and possible tricks to help your students remember the
grammar (including timelines, equations, etc.)
Step Ahead
You will notice when teaching “Step Ahead” patterns that the key points in this book are
spread across several patterns lessons or even across entire “Step Ahead” levels. You can
use this book to understand what the lessons are building to and what the children will be
responsible for knowing in the near future.
2
Contents (listed alphabetically by topic):
Appositions and Inversion Book 6, Unit 10….page 11
Auxiliaries Book 5, Unit 1….page 12
Comparative Adjectives Book 3, Unit 1….page 13
Comparison Adverbs Book 3, Unit 7….page 14
Conditional Sentences (if) Book 6, Unit 3….page 16
Conjunctions Book 6, Unit 2….page 18
Coordinate Clause, Principal Clause, Subordinate Clause Book 6, Unit 4….page 19
Countable Nouns vs. Uncountable Nouns Book 1, Unit 5….page 21
Definite Article (the) Book 1, Unit 7….page 21
Demonstrative Pronouns and Adjectives Book 2, Unit 4….page 23
Direct and Indirect Objects Book 2, Unit 2….page 23
Direct and Indirect Questions Book 6, Unit 7….page 24
Direct and Indirect Speech Book 6, Unit 6….page 27
Direct Questions Book 5, Unit 7….page 27
Formation of Adverbs Book 3, Unit 5….page 28
Function of Adverbs Book 3, Unit 6….page 29
Future Continuous Tense (will be verbing) Book 4, Unit 8….page 30
Future Tense (will/ be going to) Book 4, Unit 7….page 31
Gerunds Book 6, Unit 5….page 32
Imperatives Book 6, Unit 4….page 34
Indefinite Articles (a, an) Book 1, Unit 6….page 35
Indefinite Pronouns and Determiners Book 2, Unit 5….page 36
Infinitives Book 5, Unit 4….page 37
Interjections and Exclamatory Sentences Book 6, Unit 9….page 38
Kinds of Adverbs Book 3, Unit 4….page 39
Negative Sentences Book 5, Unit 6….page 40
Other Comparatives Book 3, Unit 3….page 40
Parts of Speech
Book 1, Unit 1….page 42
Passive Voice Book 5, Unit 2….page 43
3
Past Continuous Tense (was/were verbing) Book 4, Unit 6….page 44
Preposition Book 6, Unit 1….page 46
Present Continuous Tense (am/is/are + verbing) Book 4, Unit 5….page 47
Present and Past Participle Book 5, Unit 3….page 48
Present Perfect Continuous Tense (have/ has been verbing) Book 4, Unit 10….page 49
Present Perfect Tense (have/ has done) Book 4, Unit 9….page 51
Pronouns Book 2, Unit 1….page 52
Proper Nouns and Common Nouns Book 1, Unit 4….page 54
Punctuation and Capitalization Book 1, Unit 3….page 55
Qualitative and Quantitative Adjectives Book 2, Unit 7….page 56
Reflexive Pronouns Book 2, Unit 3….page 57
Relative Pronouns Book 2, Unit 6….page 58
Responses and Additions Book 6, Unit 8….page 61
Sensory Verbs Book 5, Unit 9….page 62
Sentence Structure Book1, Unit 2….page 63
Simple Past Tense (be verb) Book 4, Unit 3….page 65
Simple Past Tense (verb) Book 4, Unit 4….page 66
Simple Present Tense (be verb) Book 4, Unit 1….page 68
Simple Present Tense (verb) Book 4, Unit 2….page 69
Special Verbs Book 5, Unit 10….page 70
Superlative Adjectives Book 3, Unit 2….page 71
Tag Questions Book 5, Unit 8….page 73
Third Person Singular Rule ….page 74
Appendices
Appendix A: Glossary….page 75
Appendix B: Irregular Verbs….page 88
Appendix C: Verbs from Step Ahead 12….page 89
Appendix D: Common Verbal Phrases….page 91
Appendix E: Timelines….page 91
Appendix F: Web Resources ….page 94
4
Contents
(listed by topic’s appearance in Patterns books ):
Step Ahead 1
Lesson 1-4
Indefinite articles, “a” and “an” (see Indefinite Article)
Lesson 5-6
Possessive Pronouns: your, his, her. (see Possessive Pronouns)
Lesson 7-8
Adverb, here. (see Kinds of Adverbs, Adverbs of Place)
Lesson 9-13
Plural Nouns (see Countable and Uncountable Nouns)
Step Ahead 2
Lesson 1-4
Adjectives (see Parts of Speech, Simple Present Tense (be verb))
Lesson 5-9
Preposition + Place (see Prepositions)
Lesson 10-17 Like (using different subjects with like)
(see First Person Singular Rule.)
Step Ahead 3
Lesson 1-5
Have (using different subjects with have)
(see First Person Singular Rule.)
(any, some) + (countable and uncountable nouns)
(see Countable and Uncountable Nouns)
Lesson 6-9
Want (using different subjects with want)
(see First Person Singular Rule.)
(any, some) + (countable and uncountable nouns)
(see Countable and Uncountable Nouns)
Lesson 10-13 Verbs (using different subjects with regular verbs)
(see First Person Singular Rule.)
Lesson 14-17 Time
5
Step Ahead 4
Lesson 1-4
Time
Lesson 5
Like to + (Verb) (see Infinitives)
Lesson6
Have to + (Verb) (see Infinitives)
Lesson 7
Can + (Verb) (see First Person Singular Rule)
Lesson 8-9
Can (Subject) (Verb) (Prep + Place) (Prep + Time)?
Lesson 10
Preposition + Place (see Prepositions)
Lesson 11-13 (Like, Want, Have) + (Various Nouns)
Lesson 14-17 Using Prepositions with Different Prepositional Objects.
(see Prepositions)
Step Ahead 5
Lesson 1-4
Subordinating Conjunctions: as, before, after.
(see Subordinating Conjunctions)
Lesson 5-9
Prepositions and Prepositional Objects (see Prepositions)
Lesson 10-17 Countable and Uncountable Nouns
(see Countable and Uncountable Nouns)
Step Ahead 6
Lesson 1-4
Subordination Conjunctions, because and so.
(see Subordinate Conjunctions)
Lesson 5-8
Present Continuous Tense (see Present Continuous Tense)
Lesson 9
Present Tense vs. Present Continuous Tense.
Lesson 10-17 Simple past tense using “was” and “were”
(see Simple Past Tense)
Step Ahead 7
Lesson 1-9
Future tense (see Future Tense)
Lesson 10-17 Comparative and Superlative Adjectives (see Comparative Adjectives,
Superlative Adjectives)
6
Step Ahead 8
Lesson 1-4
Future tense, going to (verb) (see Future Tense)
Lesson 5-17
Simple past tense (see Simple Past Tense)
Step Ahead 9
Lesson 1-4
Irregular past tense verbs (see Simple Past Tense)
Lesson 5-9
Past continuous tense (see Past Continuous Tense)
Lesson 10-12 Sensory verbs (see Sensory Verbs)
Lesson 13-17 Adverbs (see Adverbs)
Step Ahead 10
Lesson 1-13
Present perfect tense (see Present Perfect Tense)
Lesson 14-17 Present perfect continuous tense (see Present Perfect Continuous Tense)
Step Ahead 11
Lesson 1-9
Relative pronouns and adverb (see Relative Pronoun)
Lesson 10-11 Too and so (see Apposition and Inversion, Conjunctions)
Lesson 12-13 Coordinating conjunctions (see Conjunctions)
Lesson 14-17 Tag Questions (see Tag Questions)
Step Ahead 12
Lesson 1-2
Past Perfect Tense
Lesson 3
Future continuous tense (see Future Continuous Tense)
Lesson 5- 9
Conditionals (see Conditional Sentences (if))
Lesson 10-17 Passive Voice (see Passive Voice)
7
Contents
(listed by topic’s appearance in Step Into Grammar books ):
SIG Book 1
Unit 1
Parts of Speech….page 42
Unit 2
Sentence Structures….page 63
Unit 3
Punctuation and Capitalization….page 55
Unit 4
Proper Nouns and Common Nouns….page 54
Unit 5
Countable Nouns vs. Uncountable Nouns….page 21
Unit 6
Indefinite Articles (a, an) ….page 35
Unit 7
Definite Article (the) vs. No Article….page 21
SIG Book 2
Unit 1
Pronouns….page 52
Unit 2
Direct and Indirect Objects….page 23
Unit 3
Reflexive Pronouns ….page 57
Unit 4
Demonstrative Pronouns and Adjectives….page 23
Unit 5
Indefinite Pronouns and Determiners….page 36
Unit 6
Relative Pronouns….page 58
Unit 7
Qualitative and Quantitative Adjectives….page 56
SIG Book 3
Unit 1
Comparative Adjectives….page 13
Unit 2
Superlative Adjectives….page 71
Unit 3
Other Comparisons….page 40
Unit 4
Kinds of Adverbs….page 39
Unit 5
Formation of Adverbs….page 28
Unit 6
Function of Adverbs….page 29
Unit 7
Comparison of Adverbs….page 14
8
SIG Book 4
Unit 1
Simple Present Tense (be verb)….page 68
Unit 2
Simple Present Tense (verb) ….page 69
Unit 3
Simple Past Tense (be verb) ….page 65
Unit 4
Simple Past Tense (verb) ….page 66
Unit 5
Present Continuous Tense (am/is/are verbing) ….page 47
Unit 6
Past Continuous Tense (was/were verbing) ….page 44
Unit 7
Future Tense (will/ be going to) ….page 31
Unit 8
Future Continuous Tense (will be verb+ing) ….page 30
Unit 9
Present Perfect Tense (have/ has done) ….page 51
Unit 10
Present Perfect Continuous Tense (have/ has been verb+ing) ….page 49
SIG Book 5
Unit 1
Auxiliaries….page 12
Unit 2
Passive Voice….page 43
Unit 3
Present and Past Participles….page 48
Unit 4
Infinitives….page 37
Unit 5
Gerunds….page 32
Unit 6
Negative Sentences….page 40
Unit 7
Direct Questions….page 27
Unit 8
Tag Questions….page 73
Unit 9
Sensory Verbs….page 62
Unit 10
Special Verbs….page 70
SIG Book 6
Unit 1
Prepositions….page 46
Unit 2
Conjunctions….page 18
Unit 3
Conditional Sentences (if) ….page 16
Unit 4
Coordinate Clause, Principal Clause, Subordinate Clause….page 19
Unit 5
Imperatives….page 34
9
Unit 6
Direct and Indirect Speech….page 25
Unit 7
Direct and Indirect Questions….page 24
Unit 8
Response and Additions….page 61
Unit 9
Interjections and Exclamatory Sentence….page 38
Unit 10
Apposition and Inversion….page 11
10
APPOSITIONS AND INVERSIONS
<:ApJ`zISJn> and <In`vRSJn>
Book 6, Unit 10
Appositions consist of two clauses. The second clause renames the first.
Inversions are sentences that begin with a word other than the subject.
Key Points:
1. Restrictive appositions rename the noun and give clarification or vital
information to the sentence. They do not need to be set aside by a comma.
More often than not, they are proper nouns.
E.g. This is my friend Alice. (In our example “Alice,” is a crucial bit
of information because it specifies to which friend the speaker is
referring. It is therefore restrictive.)
2. Non-restrictive appositions rename the noun, but are not crucial for
meaning. They are set apart by a set of commas. There are usually
common nouns.
E.g. My wife, the nurse, is always home very late. (In our example
“the nurse” does not further narrow down the sentence (unless there
is more than one wife). The apposition is therefore non-restrictive
and needs to be set off by commas.
3. Inversions are sentence that do not begin with the subject. Inversions can
be interrogative sentences. They may also begin with an adverb, here,
there, so, only. There are other inversions that begin with an adverb with a
negative meaning such as: hardly, no sooner, never.
E.g. Here you see the monkey swinging in the tree.
Tips:
1. For teaching the difference between restrictive and non-restrictive
appositions you can have them write this in their notes:
A. Restrictive (no comma) = only one (proper noun)
B. Non-restrictive (with comma) = (normal noun)
11
Notes:
AUXILIARIES
<:ZUg`zIlJrI>
Book 5, Unit 1
Auxiliary verbs help the main verb to make different tenses like
continuous tense, perfect tense or passive voice. This is why we can call
them “helping verbs.”
Key Points:
1. Basic auxiliaries are “do” and “does” for present tense and “did’ for
past tense.
2. Modal auxiliaries are: can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should,
must, have to, has to.
Tips:
1. Do your students remember these chants?
A. He, She, It, (name), Verb+s.
B. When you see does, bye-bye ‘s’.
C. When you see did, bye-bye past tense verb.
2. There are a couple of distinctions that are also important to remind
your students:
A. Can is present, could is usually the past tense of can.
B. We use ‘will’ when we are 100% sure, we use ‘would’ when we
are not 100% sure.
12
3. There are two kinds of auxiliaries. Have your students write this in
their notes:
Basic (no meaning): do, did, does
Auxiliaries
(Helping Verbs)
Modal (with their own meaning, i.e. when you translate,
you have to write their meaning): can, may, will, must,
have to…
Notes:
COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVES
<kJm`pArJtIv `AdjIktIv>
Book 3, Unit 1
Comparative adjectives are used to tell the differences and relationships
between two things in sentences like, “I am taller than you.”
Key Points:
1. Add –er to short adjectives (or for two syllable adjectives ending in –y
bye-bye –y add –ier. e.g. happier)
2. Use (more + adjective) for words of two syllables or more (with the
exception of those ending in –y as seen in the first key point).
E.g. This TV is more expensive than that TV.
3. There are some irregular adjectives. Their use needs to be memorized.
E.g. good, better, best; bad, worse, worst.
4. The regular pattern will look like this:
13
(noun 1) + (be verb) + (comparative adjective) + than + (noun 2).
E.g. My dog is cuter than your dog.
Tips:
1. Here is a list of questions for children to answer when making an
adjective into a comparative adjective.
A. Is it regular or irregular? (If regular add –er )
B. Does it end in –y? (Then bye-bye –y add ier).
C. Does it have 2 or 3 syllables? (Use more or most).
D. Does it end in –e? (Then add –r).
2. Comparative= (A>B)
Adj. + (adj.+er, adj.+r, adj.+ier, more adj.) + than
Superlative = (A> B,C,D…)
Be verb + the (adj.+est, most adj.)
3. When you see ‘the’ use comparative. When you see ‘than’ use
superlative.
Notes:
COMPARISON OF ADVERBS or Comparative Adverbs
<kJm`pArJtIv `AdvRb>
Book 3, Unit 7
Comparison adverbs are used much the same as comparative adjectives
(see Book 3 Unit 1). They are used to describe the differences between two
or more things.
14
Key Points:
1. For short adverbs add –er or –est.
2. For adverbs of more than 2 syllables or ending in –ly, use more or most.
E.g. She paints more beautifully than I do.
3. For similes, use as + adverb + as or not as + adverb + as
E.g. He runs as quickly as me.
4. For comparisons the pattern looks like this:
(noun 1) + (verb) + (comparative adverb) + than + (noun 2).
E.g. Tommy works harder than Susie.
Tips: Here is a chart that should help your students make some sense of
the key points:
Comparative
(adv.)+er
More + (adv.) + (than)
1 syllable
2 syllable
Superlative
(adv.)+est
The most (adv.)
Formulas:
Similes:
(Noun/
/
) + Verb + as + Adverb + as…
(Noun/
/
) + Auxiliary + not + Verb + as + Adverb + as…
Comparisons:
15
(Noun/
/
) + verb + Comparative Adverb + than…
(Noun/
/
/ Verb) + much + Comparative Adverb + than…
Notes:
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES (IF)
<kJn`dISJnL `sEntJns>
Book 6, Unit 3
There are two clauses in a conditional sentence. The main clause
(principal clause) can only happen when the “if” clause is satisfied.
Key Points:
1. There are two parts to a conditional sentence, the main clause and the “if”
clause. E.g. If you study English everyday, you will be very good at it. (in
this example “If you study English everyday,” is our “if” clause because it
begins with “if.” The clause, “You will be very good at it,” is our main
clause. Our main clause can only happen when our “if” clause is satisfied.)
2. There are four types of conditional sentences:
A. To talk about something that is always true:
(present tense “if” clause) + (present tense main clause).
E.g. If you make the teacher angry, you get extra homework.
16
B. To talk about something that is likely to happen:
(present tense “if” clause) + (future tense main clause).
E.g. If you get a good test grade, you will be very happy.
C. To talk about something imaginary or impossible:
(past tense “if” clause) + (would + (verb)).
E.g. If I were you, I would go home.
D. To talk about something that happened in the past and is
impossible to change:
(past perfect tense “if” clause) + (would have + (past participle)).
E.g. If I had studied harder, I wouldn’t have failed the test.
Tips:
1. Make sure your students write these down:
A. If + Subject + Verb, Subject + Verb(s). = Always true
E.g. If you study, you learn more.
B. If + Subject + Verb, Subject + will + Verb. = Possible to happen
E.g. If you jump off a bridge, you will get hurt.
C. If + Subject + (were/ past tense verb), Subject + would + Verb. =
Impossible
E.g. If Jimmy were a dog, he would have lots of friends.
D. If + Subject + had + Past Participle Verb, Subject + would have + Past
Participle Verb. = Done before, can’t change.
E.g. If I had studied, I would have gotten a better grade.
Notes:
17
CONJUNCTIONS
<kJn`djVnkSJn>
Book 6, Unit 2
Conjunctions are “joining” words.
Key Points:
There are two kinds of conjunctions, coordinating conjunctions and
subordinating conjunctions.
1. Coordinating conjunctions join parts that are grammatically similar.
Tell your children that they combine two of the same thing.
E.g. I like apples, and I like bananas.
2. Subordinating conjunctions join a subordinate clause to a main clause
(principal clause).
E.g. I will go to the movies unless it rains.
3. A subordinate conjunction always comes at the beginning of a
subordinate clause. You can tell a subordinate clause because it depends
on the action of another clause, the principal clause.
(In our example from Key Point 2, “unless” is our coordinating conjunction.
We can tell not only because it is underlined but also because it comes at the
beginning of a subordinate clause. The clause, “It rains,” has a subject and
a verb but lacks complete meaning. It relies on the principal clause to gain
that meaning.)
Tips:
1. The children will learn more about the different kinds of clauses in
Unit 4 of this book.
2. Coordinating conjunctions combine two of the same thing such as: adj.
and adj., noun and noun, verb and verb.
3. Make sure your students have this in their notes:
One word (and, but, or)
A. Co. Conjunction
Two words (not only…but also, both…and…)
18
Sub. Conj. + S. C.
,
P. C.
B. Sub. Conjunction
P. C. + Sub. Conj. + S. C.
Legend: Sub. Conj. = Subordinating Conjunction (i.e. after, before, if,
when, although.) S.C.= Subordinate Clause, P.C. = Principal Clause.
Notes:
COORDINATE CLAUSE, PRINCIPAL CLAUSE, SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
<ko`OrdN:et klOz>, <`prInsJpL klOz), <sJ`bOrdNIt klOz)
Book 6, Unit 4
Coordinate clauses are joined by coordinating conjunctions (and, or, but).
(See Book 6, Unit 2)
Principal clauses are the main clauses (see Book 6, Unit 3: Conditional
Sentences).
Subordinate clauses contain a subject and verb but depend on the main
clause (principal clause) for complete meaning.
Key Points:
1. Coordinate clauses are joined by coordinating conjunctions (and, or,
but).
19
E.g. I like apples, and I like bananas. (both clauses in this example
have a subject and verb. Both clauses in this example have complete
meaning when read by themselves. They are therefore coordinate
clauses.)
2. Principal clauses are the main clauses.
E.g. I will go to the movie unless it rains. (In our example “I will go to
the movie,” is our principal clause. “Unless it rains,” is a
subordinate clause because it relies on the principal clause for
meaning. )
3. There are three kinds of subordinate clauses:
A. Noun clauses often begin with “that” or wh- words. A noun
clause will perform the same duties as a noun in a sentence.
E.g. What he said made his teacher angry.
B. Adjective clauses modify a noun in the principal clause. These
are also called “Relative Clauses.” (see Relative Pronouns Book 2,
Unit 6)
E.g. He is the man that ate my dog. (In our example “that ate
my dog,” modifies the noun “the man,” in the principal clause.)
C. Adverb clauses modify the verb of the principal clause.
E.g. I was sleeping when you came to my house. (In our
example “when you came to my house,” modifies “was
sleeping.”)
Tips: Your students will be asked to identify the three different kinds of
clauses. Give them quite a lot of practice at it.
Notes:
20
COUNTABLE NOUNS VS. UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
<:kZUntJbL `nZUnz> vs. <Vn`kZUntJbL `nZUnz>
Book 1, Unit 5
There are two kinds of nouns in English. Countable nouns are objects that
we can touch and count easily. Uncountable nouns are things like liquids
that are impossible to count.
Key Points:
1. Countable nouns can be plural or singular
E.g. I have an apple. He has some apples.
2. Uncountable nouns are treated as singular and the verb must agree as
such.
E.g. This milk smells bad.
3. Uncountable nouns will not take (a or an). We can use (some, any, a
little, or much)
E.g. I have some money.
Tips:
1. Using a chart like this might help to clarify when to use which articles.
This will also help in telling when to use singular or plural rules:
Countable
a/ an/ the
Some (n)s
1
2,3,4…
Uncountable
The (noun)
Some (n) S (no ‘s’)
2. Do your students remember these charts? Do they know when to use
which quantitative adjectives?
Yes
?/No
Some
Any
Yes
No
?
Yes
?/ No
Countable
lots of, a lot of
not many, only a few
many
21
Uncountable
lots of, a lot of
not much, only a little
much
A lot of
Much
Notes:
DEFINITE ARTICLE (THE)
<:dEfJnIt `artIkL>
Book 1, Unit 7
“The” points to a specific noun.
Key Points:
1. We use ‘the’ to refer to particular, specific things or unique things.
2. The Smiths = The Smith family.
3. We cannot use ‘the’ before proper nouns (except for Key Point 2!).
Tips:
1. The subtleties of using ‘the’ may be quite difficult for your students.
Try to break it down into the fewest rules possible.
A. Particular: Look at the flower.
B. Unique: The Earth
C. The first time we use a noun, we use ‘a’ or ‘an,’ when it is mentioned
again, we use ‘the.’ E.g. May I borrow a pencil. Thank you for the pencil.
2. Try giving your students a brief paragraph with the articles missing.
See if they can fill in the articles using the rules mentioned above.
Notes:
22
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES
<dI`man:strJtIv `pronZUn>
<dI`man:strJtIv :ZdjIktIv>
Book 2, Unit 4
Demonstrative pronouns and adjectives are “this,” “that,” “these,” and
“those.”
Key Points:
1. For demonstrative pronouns, “this,” and “that,” are singular-- “these,”
and “those,” are plural.
2. When these four words are placed in front of a noun, they are adjectives.
Tips:
Here is a quick chart to help clarify the uses of demonstrative pronouns:
Can touch
Can’t touch
1
This
That
2,3,4…
These
Those
Notes:
DIRECT AND INDIRECT OBJECTS
<dJ`rEkt :abdjIkt>
<:IndJ`rEkt :abdjIkt>
Book 2, Unit 2
23
A direct object is the person or thing that the verb is happening to. An
indirect object is someone or something that is affected by the verb. The
indirect object is typically the recipient of the action but not the primary
object.
Key Points:
1. With a preposition the typical structure looks like this:
(Subject) + (verb) + (direct object) + (preposition) + (indirect object).
E.g. Bob took the books to Teacher Gina.
2. When there is no preposition, the DO and IO switch positions thusly:
(Subject) + (verb) + (indirect object) + (direct object).
E.g. Bob took Teacher Gina the books.
Tips: It could be quite a headache trying to explain what the recipient of
action is. So, teach it the way your sixth-grade teacher taught it to you.
Bombard your students with sentences to dissect. The key to the unit is
making your students confident in their instincts about the material. They
have studied that material in depth, although they may not realize it!
Notes:
DIRECT AND INDIRECT QUESTIONS
<dJ`rEkt `kwEstSJn> and <:IndJ`rEkt
Book 6, Unit 7
kwEstSJn>
Direct questions are quoted questions. (These were covered previously in
Book 5, Unit 7.)
Indirect questions are much like indirect speech in that it is reported rather
than quoted. Indirect questions end in a period rather than a question
mark.
24
Key Points:
1. Review Book 5, Unit 7 for information on direct questions.
2. Indirect questions can be “yes” or “no” questions. They can also be whquestions.
A. The structure for wh- questions looks like this:
(Subject) + (verb) + wh- + (subject) + (verb).
E.g. My dad asked me when I would be home.
B. The structure for “yes,” or “no,” questions looks like this:
(Subject) + (verb) + (whether/ if) + (subject) + (verb).
E.g. My dad asked me whether I finished my homework.
Tips: Students will have difficulty deciding which tense to use in the
second clause. Do more practice.
Notes:
DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH
<dJ`rEkt spitS> <:IndJ`rEkt spitS>
Book 6, Unit 6
Direct speech is in quotation marks.
Indirect speech is a summing up of what was said. We usually say “that” in
indirect speech.
Key Points:
1. Direct speech uses quotation marks.
2. We use the word, “that” to link indirect speech to the principal clause.
E.g. He said that he was happy.
25
3. Sometimes we have to change tense. When changing tense, there are four
things to keep in mind:
1. If it is a fact, use present tense.
E.g.
My teacher said, “The moon goes around the Earth.”
My teacher said that the moon goes around the Earth.
2. If it is habitual (always, usually, seldom, sometimes or never), we
use present tense.
E.g.
I said, “I always eat my vegetables.”
I said that I always eat my vegetables.
3. If the sentence is a future tense sentence, change “will” to “would.”
E.g.
Annie said yesterday, “I will go to Japan tomorrow.”
Annie said yesterday that she would go to Japan tomorrow.
4. In other circumstances, the verb in the indirect speech should
match the verb in the principal clause.
E.g.
Annie said, “I want to go to the movie.”
Annie said that she wanted to go to the movie.
Tips:
1. Your students will be asked to change direct speech into indirect
speech. This sort of language problem is a huge part of the GEPT.
2. When introducing quoted speech, it may be useful to use a figure such
as this:
Hey, I’m Bob.
Bob
Next, take out the speech bubble and put quotation marks around Bob’s
words:
“Hey, I’m Bob.”
Bob
26
Finally, take out Bob entirely, but tag the speech as his:
“Hey, I’m Bob,” Bob says.
Notes:
DIRECT QUESTIONS
<dJ`rEkt `kwEstSJn>
Book 5, Unit 7
Direct questions are either “yes” and “no” questions or begin with
a wh- word.
Key Points:
1. “Yes” and “no” questions begin with a be verb or auxiliary (see Unit 1).
E.g. Is he standing?
2. In negative questions, “not” will usually make a contraction with the
leading auxiliary (see Unit 6).
E.g. Don’t we have fun?
3. Wh- (who, when, what, where, why, how) questions will not have a “yes”
or “no” answer.
4. Other direct questions will have “how about,” or “what about.”
Tips:
When first introducing yes and no questions, make sure to chant:
After ‘yes,’ and ‘no,’ always comma.
27
Notes:
FORMATION OF ADVERBS
Book 3, Unit 5
Adverbs are words that can modify verbs, adjectives or other adverbs.
They can express a relation of place, time, circumstance, manner, cause, or
degree.
Key Points:
1. Most adverbs are “-ly” words. You can make an adjective into an adverb
by adding –ly
E.g. slow- slowly
2. Some adjectives and adverbs are the same.
E.g. late, fast, hard, pretty
3. Sometimes the adjective means something else after adding –ly.
4. Some adverbs do not end in –ly.
E.g late, near, hard
Tips:
1. While there are quite a few exceptions to the rules, the students
basically need to know that adverbs tell us the how a verb is occurring.
How is Timmy running? He is running crazily. The rest of the
information will come in later units when the students will learn adverbs
of time, place, circumstance, etc.
2. It is also important that the children know (Adjective) + -ly = (Adverb)
28
Notes:
FUNCTION OF ADVERBS
Book 3, Unit 6
Adverbs are words that can modify verbs, adjectives or other adverbs.
They can express a relation of place, time, circumstance, manner, cause, or
degree.
Key Points:
1. Adverbs can modify a verb, can modify an adjective, can modify other
adverbs, or can modify a whole sentence.
2. Adverbs can be more than one word.
E.g. in fact, in addition, as a matter of fact
3. Interrogative adverbs (when, where, why, how) come at the beginning
of a sentence.
4. Adverbs of frequency (sometimes, always, often, usually, never) are
placed (a.) after be verbs (b.) before verbs (c.) between auxiliary verbs.
Tips: Refer back to the topics “Kinds of Adverbs,” and “Formation of
Adverbs” for more information. Adverbs have many functions and it is
hard to classify them at times. Make sure you give plenty of simple, clear
examples to your students.
Notes:
29
FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE (WILL BE + VERBING)
<`fyUtSK kJn`tInyUJs tEns>
Book 4, Unit 8
The future continuous tense describes action at one time in the future. The
action will take a long time.
Key Points:
1. The basic structures will be looking like this:
(Subject) + (shall/ will be) + (verb+ing).
E.g. Benson will be sleeping.
(Subject) + (shall not/ will not be/ won’t be) + (verb+ing).
E.g. Yoyo will not be studying.
Will + (subject) + be + (verb+ing)?
E.g. Will Eric be waiting?
2. We use “shall” with the words “I” and “we.”
3. We usually add a future tense time to the end to make the sentence
clearer to the listener.
Tips:
1. The shall pattern sounds a bit archaic, make sure your children
recognize it as future tense.
2. The tense chart will look like this:
In your SIG book you can see
that there is an extra ‘x.’ This is
because the time being spoken
about is relatively short, but it began
before and will continue. In the sentence “I will be
reading at 10 o’clock tonight,” the ‘x’ would represent 10 o’clock (a very
specific and short time). The squiggly line represents reading. It started
before 10 o’clock and will continue until after 10 o’clock. Confused? So
are your students. You can simplify it by taking away the extra ‘x.’
3. You can give your students simplified formulas like this:
(Noun/
/
) + will be + (verb+ing) + (prep) + (time).
30
E.g. He will be eating at 5 o’clock.
Notes:
FUTURE TENSE (WILL BE/ GOING TO)
<`fyUtSK tEns)
Book 4, Unit 7
Future tense refers to action that has not yet happened or action that will
happen.
Key Points:
1. You can use “will” or “going to” in a future tense sentence, but the
structures of the two are a bit different.
(Subject) + (will) +(verb).
E.g. Kevin will go to school.
(Subject) + (am/ is/ are) + (going to) + (verb).
E.g. Kevin is going to go to school.
2. A future tense time (tomorrow, next week, next month, in ten minutes,
etc.) is often used.
3. The sentence structures will look something like this (using only “will”):
(Subjuct) + will + (verb).
E.g. Kevin will go to school.
(Subject) + will + not + (verb).
E.g. James will not go to Tainan.
Will + (subject) + (verb)?
E.g. Will Elaine kiss a frog?
(Who, What, When, Where, Why, How) + will + (subject) + (verb)?
E.g. When will you pay for you plane tickets?
Who will + (verb)?
E.g. Who will clean up the classroom?
31
4. “Be going to” is more certain than “will.”
5. “Will not” = “won’t”
Tips:
1. Your tense chart will looks like this:
2. You can use formulas like these:
(will) + (v.) + (prep.) + (time).
(n./
/
)
(am, is, are) +going to + (v.) + (prep.) + (time).
E.g. I will run in July.
Notes:
GERUNDS
<`djErJnd>
32
Book 5, Unit 5
Gerunds are (verb+ing) words. They are used as nouns.
Key Points:
1. Gerunds can be used as subjects.
E.g. Running is fun.
2. Gerunds can be used as compliments; they can follow a (be verb).
E.g. Winnie’s hobby is collecting stamps.
3. Gerunds can be used as objects (when placed after prepositions or verbs).
E.g. She likes dancing.
4. Verbs can often be followed by a gerund or an infinitive and maintain
the same meaning—It started to rain. It started raining. Other times,
however, the meaning of the sentence will be different depending on
whether the verb is followed by a gerund or infinitive.
Tips:
1. Here is a list of verbs that can be followed by a gerund or infinitive
without changing the meaning of the sentence: attempt, begin, can’t bear,
can’t stand, continue, hate, like, love, prefer, propose, regret and start.
2. Try explaining to your students that gerunds are nouns that look like
verbs. Why? Because when we talk about a verb it becomes a noun.
E.g. I can run.
E.g. I like running. (compare this to the sentence “I like apples.”)
3. Make sure your students have these patterns in their notes:
A. Verb+ing + is + verb.
(Here the gerund is the subject.)
B. Subject + is + Verb+ing.
(Here the gerund is the compliment.)
C1. Subject + VT + Verb+ing. e.g. She likes dancing.
(Here the gerund is the obect)
C2. Subject + Verb + Prep + Verb+ing. e.g. She always things about
dancing.
(Here again the gerund is the object.)
33
Notes:
IMPERATIVES
<Im`pErJtIv>
Book 6, Unit 5
Imperatives are sentence that show a mood, often commanding.
Key Points:
1. In an imperative sentence the subject is understood to be “you.” (the
listener).
2. The sentence structure is like this:
A. Be + (adjective).
E.g. Be careful.
B. (Simple present tense verb) + ….
E.g. Get out.
E. Never + (simple present tense verb).
E.g. Never lie.
F. Let + (object) + (simple present tense verb).
E.g. Let sleeping dogs lie.
G. Let’s + (simple present tense verb).
E.g. Let’s go.
3. For most negative sentences add “don’t” to the beginning of the
sentence.
34
Notes:
INDEFINITE ARTICLES (A, AN)
<In`defJnIt `artIkL>
Book 1, Unit 6
Indefinite articles are adjectives that refer to one noun. However, these
words may refer to no particular noun. (see Book 1, Unit 7 for comparison
to the definite article.)
Key Points:
1. Use “a” with words that begin with consonants.
2. Use “an” with words that begin with vowels or words that sound like they
begin with vowels.
E.g. an orange, an hour
Tips:
1. a/ an = 1
2. Try chanting:
an
a
e
i
o
u
35
Notes:
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS AND DETERMINERS
<In`dEfJnIt `pronZUn>
<dI`tRmInK>
Book 2, Unit 5
An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun that does not refer to any particular
person or thing. Determiners are used in front of nouns to indicate whether
you are referring to something specific or something of a particular type.
Determiners are different to pronouns in that a determiner is always
followed by a noun.
Key Points:
1. The indefinite pronouns (someone, somebody, something, anyone,
anybody, anything, everyone, everybody, one, nobody, nothing and none)
refer to no particular person or thing. These words all follow singular
grammar rules. (E.g. Everyone likes money.)
2. The indefinite pronouns (one, ones, and others) refer to something
mentioned previously.
E.g. There are several apples. One is for you.
3. Determiners as adjectives can refer to people and things in a general
way.
E.g. All the students are excited for Christmas.
4. Neither…nor and either…or can be used as subject or object. When they
are used as subjects the verbs must agree with the nearest noun.
E.g. Neither he nor I agree with what you said. (In our example, the
nearest noun to “agree,” is “I,” therefore, “agree” must agree with
“I.”
36
Notes:
INFINITIVES
<In`fInJtIv>
Book 5, Unit 4
An infinitive is (to+verb). An infinitive can be used in many different ways.
Key Points:
1. An infinitive can be a noun.
E.g. To run is his favorite sport.
2. An infinitive can be an adjective.
E.g. I am excited to learn.
3. And infinitive can be an adverb.
E.g. We will sing to entertain.
4. An infinitive can also be part of a phrase.
E.g. To be honest with you, I have no idea.
Tips:
1. Gerunds and infinitives are often interchangeable (see Key Point 4,
Book 5, Unit 5: Gerunds).
2. Students will be seeing quite a lot of this pattern. Make sure you
students have this in their notes and know how to use it:
A. To Verb + is + … + for Subject
B. It is + adj. + for + person + to verb. (Here ‘it’ is an empty subject.)
3. There are many verbs that may be followed by the infinitive here is a
list:
37
afford | agree | appear | arrange | ask | attempt | care | choose | claim |
come | consent | dare | decide | demand | deserve | determine | elect |
endeavor | expect | fail | get | guarantee | hate | help | hesitate | hope |
hurry | incline | intend | learn | long | manage | mean | need offer | plan |
prepare | pretend | promise | refuse | resolve | say | seem | tend | threaten |
want | wish
Notes:
INTERJECTIONS AND EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES
<:IntK`djEkSJn> and <Ik`sklAmJ:tOrI sEntJns>
Book 6, Unit 9
An exclamatory sentence is a sudden cry or remark expressing surprise,
anger or pain.
An interjection is an exclamatory word. They don’t having any
grammatical connection with other parts of the sentence. They simply
wedge or interject themselves.
Key Points:
1. Exclamatory sentences will look like this:
A. How + (adjective/ adverb) + (subject) + (verb)!
E.g. How fat you are!
B. What + (noun) + (subject) + (verb)!
E.g. What a hot day it is!
2. Interjections may be followed by period, exclamation point or comma.
Some interjections are more than one word.
38
Notes:
KINDS OF ADVERBS
Book 3, Unit 4
Adverbs are words that can modify verbs, adjectives or other adverbs.
They can express a relation of place, time, circumstance, manner, cause, or
degree.
Key Points:
There are 6 major types of adverbs.
1. Adverbs of manner <`AdvRb Jv `mAnK> or how the verb acts
E.g. fast, slowly, quickly, carefully, sadly, loudly, early, late
2. Adverbs of time <`AdvRb Jv tZIm> or when the adverb happened
E.g. today, now, tomorrow, yesterday, then
3. Adverbs of frequency <`AdvRb Jv `frikwJnsI> or how often
E.g. always, usually, often, sometimes, seldom, never
4. Adverbs of degree <`AdvRb Jv dI`gri> or adverbs that tell us how
much or how little
E.g. quite, rather, very, much, nearly, almost, really
5. Adverbs of place <`AdvRb Jv ples> or adverbs that tell us more about
direction and place
E.g. here, there, everywhere, north, south, east, west
6. Interrogative adverbs <:IntJ`ragJtIv `AdvRb> or question words
E.g. when, where, why, how
39
Notes:
NEGATIVE SENTENCES
<`nEgJtIv `sEntJns>
Book 5, Unit 6
A negative sentence contains “no,” “not,” or “never.”
Key Points:
1. Most negative sentence will have “not” after the auxiliary verb.
E.g. He is not my brother.
2. In negative questions, “not” is usually placed in a contraction with the
auxiliary.
E.g. Didn’t he eat a monkey? (This means you are 90% sure he ate a
monkey.)
3. Some negative sentences will have “never” or “no.”
E.g. We never use chopsticks.
Notes:
OTHER COMPARATIVES
40
Book 3, Unit 3
There are a few other ways to compare two things.
Key Points:
1. As (something) as (see simile <`sImJ:lI>)
E.g. He is as lazy as I am.
2. (something 1) less than (something 2)
E.g. Jimmy is less clever than his sister.
3. the least (adjective)
E.g. Alex is the least handsome of the brothers.
4. no other + (noun) + (verb) + so + (adjective) + as
E.g. No other monkey is so smart as Albert.
5. (adjective+er) + than any other + (singular noun)
E.g. She is faster than any other girl.
6. (adjective+er) + than all other + (plural noun)
E.g. Jack is taller than all other boys in his class.
Tips:
Here is a simple way to break it down for your students:
Comparing things in common:
1.
2.
3.
4.
(be v.) + as (adj.) + as
(v.) + as + (adv.) + as
(v.) + as many (n.)s + as
(v.) + as much (u.c. n.) as
Comparing different things:
1. (be v.) + less + (adj.) + than
2. (be v.) + the least + (adj.)
3a.(be v.) + (adj.)er + than any other (n.)
3b.(be v.) + more + (adj.) than any other (n.)
4a.(be v.) + (adj.)er than all other (n.)s
4b.(be v.) + more (adj.) + than all other (n.)s
41
Notes:
PARTS OF SPEECH
<:parts Jv `spitS>
Book 1, Unit 1
Words fit into several different categories: noun, verb, pronoun, adjective,
adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection.
Key Points:
1. Nouns. <nZUn> Person, place, or thing. Usually things we can touch.
E.g. pen, dog, word, music, Taipei, Jack
2. Verbs. <vRb> Action or state. Something we can do.
E.g. be, have, like, do
3. Pronouns. <`pronZUn> Takes the place of a noun. A no-name noun.
E.g. I, you, we, they, me, us, themselves, himself
4. Adjectives. <`AdjIktIv> Describes a noun.
E.g. six, red, hot, angry, well, interesting
5. Adverb. <`AdvRb> Modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb.
E.g. quickly, slowly, sadly, well, really, when, where, why
6. Preposition. <:prEpJ`zISJn> Tells about location or time
E.g. to, at, after, on, of, for, with
7. Conjunction. <kJn`djVnkSJn> Joins sentences and words.
E.g. and, but, when, after, because, so, while
8. Interjection. <:IntK`djEkSJn> Shows feeling, exclamations.
E.g. oh, ouch, hi, well
Tips:
42
1. Give your students some words and ask for the grammar labels. Give
them some more difficult words that they can look up in their dictionaries.
Notes:
PASSIVE VOICE
<`pAsIv vOIs>
Book 5, Unit 2
The passive voice is used when the object of the sentence is more important
than the subject. The object is therefore brought to the front of the sentence.
Key Points:
1. The basic structure is this:
(object) + (be verb) + (past participle) + [by + (subject)]
E.g. The ball was hit by me.
The subject in passive voice isn’t really important. You can usually omit
the subject altogether.
2. You can use any tense with passive voice by changing your auxiliary
verb.
E.g. The ball was hit by me.
The ball is being hit by me.
Tips:
1. Be careful your students’ books may say that when the object moves to
the beginning of the sentence, it become the subject of the sentence. It is
up to you how you want to label it.
43
Notes:
PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE (WAS/WERE + VERBING)
<`past kJn`tInyUJs tEns>
Book 4, Unit 6
Past continuous tense is used to say that we were in the middle of doing
something at a particular moment in the past.
Key Points:
1. The structure will look something like this:
(Subject) + (was/ were) + (verb+ing).
E.g. I was eating.
2. Because past continuous tense talks about being in the middle of
something in the past, when and while are often used.
A. (Subject) + (be verb) + (past continuous tense) + when + (subject)
+ (simple past tense).
E.g. I was running when I fell.
B. (Subject) + (Simple past tense) + while + (subject) + (be verb) +
(past continuous tense).
E.g. I fell while I was running.
Tips: At this point, the book isn’t laid out in the most logical way.
Examine exactly what the book asks the children to know. Try to re-work
it in the most logical way possible. Perhaps you want to teach it a clause
at a time:
1. A. Begin with the continuous clause.
Use a few easy examples. “I was running,”
“I was eating,” or “I was sleeping.”
44
Show the timeline for these
examples:
B. Give the formula:
(n./
/
) + (was/ were) + (verb+ing).
C. Now add the simple past tense
clause. This is what your timeline
will look like. Make sure
to use a few simple
examples.
D. And you just need to make a simple addition to your formula. This is
the simplified version:
(past continuous) when (past tense).
E. Finally, you can also change it around and use “while,” in between the
clauses:
(past tense) while (past continuous).
Short
Long
While
When
Long
Short
Notes:
45
PREPOSITIONS
<:prEpJ`zISJn>
Book 6, Unit 1
Prepositions are used to tell more about time or place in a sentence.
Key Points:
1. Prepositions of place tell you where.
E.g. at, on, in, above, beside
2. Prepositions of time are used with time to tell more about when.
E.g. at (time) , in (month), last (year).
3. Prepositions are often connected with other words to make prepositional
phrases.
A. Verb phrase is a (verb) + (preposition). (see Appendix C for a list
of common prepositional phrases.
B. Adjective phrase is a (be verb) + (adjective) + (preposition)
E.g. I am bored with beef noodles.
C. Preposition phrase is (preposition) + (noun)
E.g. I go to school by scooter.
Tips:
1. The children have quite a few problems with prepositions when they are
beginning learning English. Hopefully at this point your students have a
pretty good comprehension. The new material is really the prepositional
phrases. You can use a few examples of easy sentences and let your
students dissect them.
E.g. I go to school by scooter.
E.g. I sleep in a bed.
E.g. I laughed at him.
2. For the third key point, you can give your children a list of possible
phrase combinations.
A. Verb phrase = verb + preposition
B. Adjective phrase = be verb + adj. + preposition
C. Prepositional phrase = Preposition + noun
46
Notes:
PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE (am/is/are + verbing)
<`prEzNt kJn`tInyUJs tEns>
Book 4, Unit 5
Present continuous tense describes something that is happening now.
Key Points:
1. Present continuous tense is something that is happening now (or in the
future!?!), but you cannot use this tense with like or want.
2. For action happening now, the structure will look like this:
(Subject) + (am/ is/ are) + (verb+ing).
E.g. I am running.
(Subject) + (am/ is/ are) + not + (verb+ing).
E.g. I am not running.
(Am/ Is/ Are) + (subject) + (verb+ing)?
E.g. Am I running?
(What/ When/ Where/ Why/ How) + (am/ is/ are) + (subject) + (verb+ing)?
E.g. What are you doing?
Who is + (verb+ing)?
E.g. Who is running?
Tips:
1. The book says that you can use present continuous to talk about things
that will happen in the future. It’s a difficult concept for them to get their
heads around. This only works with a handful of verbs as well: leaving,
going, staying, etc. Touch on it briefly and let them know that it is the
same as a future tense sentence.
47
2. Here is the timeline:
3. Here is the formula:
(n./
/
) + (am/ is/ are) + (verb+ing).
Notes:
PRESENT AND PAST PARTICIPLES
<`prEzNt `partJsJpL> <pAst `partJsJpL>
Book 5, Unit 3
A participle is a word formed from a verb that can function as part of a
verb phrase.
The present participle is a participle that ends in -ing. It can be used with
the auxiliary verb 'to be' to form the continuous tense (I am running). It
always takes the ‘ing’ form of the verb, even irregular verbs have an ‘ing’
form, in fact virtually all English words that end with ‘ing’ are present
participles.
48
A past participle indicates past or completed action or time. It is often
called the 'ed' form as it is formed by adding d or ed, to the base form of
regular verbs, however it is also formed in various other ways for irregular
verbs (walked, run).
Key Points:
1. Form present participle by adding –ing to a verb.
2. We usually make past participles by adding –ed to a verb. There are
many irregular verbs, however.
Tips:
1. Make sure your students have these in their notes for present participle:
A. Be verb + verbing
E.g. He is running.
B. a/ an + verbing + noun
E.g. This is a dancing monkey.
2. Make sure your students have these in their notes for past participles:
A. Be verb + Past participle verb (v.p.p.)
B. have/ has/ had + v.p.p.
C. v.p.p. + noun (in this case the v.p.p. is an adjective).
D. Subject + be verb + v.p.p.
E. Subject + be verb + noun + v.p.p.
Notes:
PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
(HAVE/HAS BEEN VERBING)
<`prEzNt `pRfIkt kJn`tInyUJs tEns>
49
Book4, Unit 10
Present perfect continuous tense is used to describe action that began in
the past and has continued to now or has just ended.
Key Points:
1. The basic structure looks like this:
(Subject) + (have/has) + been + (verb+ing).
E.g. I have been eating.
2. You can use this tense to describe something that began in the past and
has recently ended or an action that began some time in the past and still
continues.
3. If the action began in the past and still continues, use “for” or “since.”
We use “for” with an amount of time (for 2 year, for 2 months, for a little
while).
We use “since” with a clear time in the past (since 1983, since December).
Tips:
1. You can tell your students, “For how long,” or “Since when.” Have
students switch between the two.
2. There are two timelines for this tense:
The first timeline shows that an action
began before now, but is somehow related
to now.
E.g. I have been studying English.
The second timeline shows that
an action began in the past
and has continued until now
50
Notes:
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE (HAVE/ HAS DONE)
<`prEzNt `pRfIkt tEns>
Book 4, Unit 9
Present perfect tense is used to describe action that began at some point in
the past and ended sometime before now. There are three uses: 1.
Experience. 2. Finished action. 3. Continuing situations.
Key Points:
1. The structure looks something like this:
(Subject) + (has/ have) + (past participle).
E.g. Claudia has practiced kung fu.
2. Use “just” with present perfect tense to talk about something recently
finished.
(Subject) + (has/ have) + just + (past participle).
E.g. I have just finished reading that book.
3. We also use ‘for’ or ‘since’ to talk about time.
We use ‘for’ with an amount of time (for 2 year, for 2 months, for a little
while).
We use ‘since’ with a clear time in the past (since 1983, since December).
4. The students should have their verbs memorized in the order present
tense, past tense, past participle. (run, ran, run. want, wanted, wanted.)
Tips:
Here are two timelines for present perfect tense:
(for an explanation of the
51
timelines, check out
Appendix E!)
This timeline is used when
you want to add ‘for’ or
‘since.’
This timeline is used when
you want to use ‘just.’
Here is an equation:
for (how long).
(n./
/
) (has/have) + (p.p)
since (time).
Notes:
PRONOUNS
<`pronZUn>
Book 2, Unit 1
Pronouns are words that take the place of nouns. They are no-name nouns.
Key Points:
1. Subject pronouns can be either singular (I, you, he, she, it) or plural
(they, you, we).
52
2. Predicate pronouns (also known as object pronouns) can also be singular
(me, you, him, her, it) or plural (us, you, them).
3. Possessive adjectives are words that come before a noun to tell that
something belongs to someone.
4. Possessive pronouns take the place of the possessive adjective and
noun.
E.g. Zach’s hair is short than my hair.
Zach’s hair is shorter than mine.
Tips: Here is a pronoun chart that should alleviate a little confusion for
your class. Many of your problems will be solved by having a strong
definition for possessive adjectives and possessive pronouns. Try making
a tic-tac-toe game out of the following grid for some student-centered
practice.
He
She
It
I
You
We
They
Subject (1)
Object (2)
He
She
It
I
You
We
They
Him
Her
It
Me
You
Us
Them
Possessive
Adjective (3)
His
Her
Its
My
Your
Our
Their
Tips:
1. Teach your students:
Subject Pronouns (1) come before the verb.
Object Pronouns (2) come after the verb. OR…
(1) verb (2).
E.g. I eat apples. Apples eat me.
Possessive Adjectives (3) come before the noun.
Possessive Pronouns (4) come after the noun. OR…
(3) noun (4).
E.g. This is my apple. The apple is mine.
53
Possessive
Pronoun (4)
His
Hers
Its
Mine
Yours
Ours
Their
2. Here is a quick exercise to help with some of the confusion of
possessive pronouns. It breaks the equation into more and more difficult
examples.
(poss. adj.) + (n.) = (poss. pronoun)
His
book = his
That is my pencil. = That is mine.
Notes:
PROPER NOUNS AND COMMON NOUNS
<:prapK `nZUnz> <:kamJn `nZUnz>
Book 1, Unit 4
A proper noun is a particular person place or thing like a person’s name or
the name of a place. A common noun is any person place or thing.
Key Points:
1. Proper nouns are names, cities, countries, nationalities, languages, places,
addresses, months, days of the week, or holidays. Proper nouns begin with a
capital letter.
2. Common nouns can be either countable or uncountable.
Tips: Countable vs. Uncountable nouns will be covered in-depth in Unit 5
(see Countable and Uncountable Nouns Book 1, Unit 5 for a nice chart to
help your students with this type of noun). In this unit, give students a
quick review, but keep in mind you will need to cover it again next week.
54
Notes:
PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION
<pVGktSu`esJn>
(kApJtLJ`zeSJn>
Book 1, Unit 3
Punctuation is the marks, such as a period, comma, and parentheses, used
in writing to separate sentences and their elements and to clarify meaning.
Key Points:
1. Period (.) <`pIrIJd> to end a sentence or abbreviation
E.g. Mr. Smith works at the library.
2. Question mark (?) <kwestSJn `mark> to end a question
E.g. Where does Mr. Smith work?
3. Exclamation mark (!) <EksklJ`meSJn mark> to end an exclamatory
sentence
E.g. How beautiful a day it is!
4. Comma (,) <`kamJ> many uses, any time a reader would take a breath
E.g. I like apples, and I like watermelon, mango and grapes, too.
5. Semicolon (;) <`sEmI:kolJn> to replace ‘and’ to connect two sentences
E.g. I like apples; I like watermelon, mango and grapes, too.
6. Colon (:) <`kolJn> to begin a list
E.g. I like lots of fruit: apples, watermelon, mango, and grapes.
7. Dash (⎯) <dAS> shows a pause
E.g. I have been to lots of places⎯Taipei, Hua Lien, Hsin Juang⎯in
Taiwan.
8. Hyphen (-) <`hZIfJn> combine words
E.g. Peter is such a good-looking boy.
9. Apostrophe (’) <J`pastrJfI> to show possession or contractions
E.g. I don’t like Tyler’s hat.
55
10. Ellipses (…) <I`lIpsiz> to show that someone isn’t finished speaking
E.g. What are you doing…
11. Quotation marks (“ ”) <kwo`teSJn `mark> to indicate other people’s
words
E.g. The teacher said, “Don’t watch TV while you write your
homework.”
Tips: Give your students a few sentences that they need to punctuate.
Notes:
QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE ADJECTIVES
<kwalJ:tetIv :AdjIktIv>
<kwantJ:tetIv :AdjIktIv>
Book 2, Unit 7
Qualitative adjectives describe the quality (shape, size, color) of a noun.
Quantitative adjectives describe the number or amount of a noun.
Key Points:
1. Qualitative adjectives include anything describing appearance, emotions,
shape, size, color, weather conditions.
2 Quantitative adjectives include number, ordinal numbers, all, any, many,
few, a little, some, etc…
Tips:
1. You can make the differences between these two types of adjectives
clearer by telling your students that:
A. Qualitative adjectives tell how something looks.
56
B. Quantitative adjectives tell how many or how much there are of
any noun.
Notes:
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
<rI`flEksIv `pronZUn>
Book 2, Unit 3
Reflexive pronouns are pronouns that refer back to the subject of the
clause in which it is used.
Key Points:
1. Reflexive pronouns are used after verbs.
E.g. We really enjoyed ourselves.
2. Reflexive pronouns are used after verb phrases.
E.g. He takes care of himself.
3. Reflexive pronouns are often used with the preposition “by.”
E.g. I like to go for walks by myself.
Tips:
1. Here again we are simply going to add to the pronoun chart that we
began in Book 2, Unit 1.
Subject
Object
He
She
It
Him
Her
It
Possessive
Adjective
His
Her
Its
57
Possessive
Pronoun
His
Hers
Its
Reflexive
Pronoun
Himself
Herself
Itself
I
You
Me
You
My
Your
Mine
Yours
We
They
Us
Them
Our
Their
Ours
Their
Myself
Yourself/
Yourselves
Ourselves
Themselves
2. Try having your students make a few sentences on their own. Remind
them that we often use (by + reflexive pronoun). Also remind them that
the reflexive pronoun should agree with the subject. (E.g. Bob runs by
himself at night.)
3. Here are some simple rules to clarify when to use and how to identify
each of the different kinds of pronouns.
Subject pronoun: Usually put in front of sentence.
Object pronoun: Usually after a verb or preposition.
Possessive adjective: Are followed by a noun (his cat, her dog).
Possessive pronoun: Possessive adj. + noun. (That book is my book. That
book is mine.)
Reflexive pronoun: Often precede by ‘by’.
Notes:
Relative Pronouns
<`rElJtIv :pronZUn>
Book 2, Unit 6
A relative pronoun refers to an expressed or implied antecedent and
attaches a subordinate clause to it. They refer to something that has
already been mentioned. e.g., which, who.
58
Key Points:
1. Relative pronouns can combine two short sentences.
A. Who. We use who when talking about a person as the subject
pronoun.
E.g. Bob is a student. He studies at the junior high school.
Bob is a student who studies at the junior high school.
B. Whom. We use whom when talking about a person as the object
pronoun.
E.g. Perry is my older brother. Emily loves him.
Perry is my brother whom Emily loves very much.
C. Which. We use which to refer to a thing or things.
E.g. This is the new dress. I bought the new dress yesterday.
This is the new dress, which I bought yesterday.
D. That. We can use that to replace who, whom or which.
E.g. Bob is the student that studies at the junior high school.
E.g. Perry is my brother that Emily loves very much.
E.g. This is the new dress that I bought yesterday.
E. Whose. We can use this as a possessive adjective (see possessive
adjective.)
E.g. I’m from a country. My country’s history goes back
thousands of years.
E.g. I’m from a country whose history goes back thousands of
years.
2. Defining relative clauses define the whole sentence.
3. Non-defining clauses provide extra information. It is separated from the
rest of the sentence by a comma.
Tips:
1. Your students are going to be responsible for taking two sentences and
combining them using one of the relative pronouns. This may be quite
difficult.
The first step in combing two sentences is finding where the sentences
overlap.
For Example:
Bob is a student. He studies at the junior high school.
59
In these two sentences, “Bob” and “he” refer to the same person.
The second step is deciding what kind of word these are, what they refer
to, and what kind of relative pronoun will be useful.
For Example:
“Bob” and “he” refer to a person. This person is the subject of the
sentence. You can use either “who” or “that.”
The third step is combining the sentences using the relative pronoun.
For Example:
Bob is a student who studies at the junior high school.
Here we can simple take out he and insert the relative pronoun.
Outline these steps on the board along with examples of when to use who,
whom, which, that, and whose.
If there is time, do a few sentences with the class or give them individual
writing practice.
2. You can give your students a few easy points to remember about when
to use each of the pronouns.
Who= Person or persons as the subject.
Whom= Person or persons as the object.
Which/ That= things as the subject
Whose= (Person/ Persons/ Noun)’s
3. When in doubt, use ‘that’.
Notes:
60
RESPONSES AND ADDITIONS
<rI`spans> and <J`dISJn>
Book 6, Unit 8
A response is an answer that a listener makes when the listener agrees with
what was just said. Kind of a “Right on!’ or “Sing it sister.”
An addition is when the speaker wants to give extra information or compare
two things they are talking about.
Key Points:
1. When responding to a positive statement:
A. So + (be verb/ auxiliaries) + subject
E.g. So do I.
B. (Subject) + (be verb/ auxiliaries), + too.
E.g. Andy does, too.
2. When responding to a negative statement:
A. Neither + (be verb/ auxiliaries) + (subject).
E.g. Neither do I.
B. (Subject) + (be verb/ auxiliaries) + not, + either.
E.g. Jenny doesn’t either.
3. In additions:
A. Connect two positive clauses with “and.”
B. Connect two negative clauses with “and.”
C. Connect a negative and a positive statement with “but.”
4. Making an addition is essentially taking a regular statement and adding a
response to it using the appropriate conjunction.
E.g. I don’t like soup, and Jenny doesn’t either. (Because both
clauses are negative, we can use the conjunction, “and.”)
Notes:
61
SENSORY VERBS
<`sEnJrI vRb>
Book 5, Unit 9
Sensory verbs (look, sound, taste, smell and feel) are used to tell us about
our five senses.
Key Points:
1. If an adjective or noun follows the sensory verb, the structure will be
slightly different.
A. (Subject) + (sensory verb) + (adjective).
E.g. He looks tired.
B. (Subject) + (sensory verb) + like + (noun).
E.g. He looks like a monkey.
2. There are many other ways to use sensory verbs that will get a different
meaning.
A. (Subject) + (sensory verb) + (object) + (verb).
E.g. We saw Jim dancing.
B. To emphasize action in progress use the present participle,
(verb+ing)
(Subject) + (sensory verb) + (object) + (verb+ing).
E.g. We listened to her talking.
C. Use the past participle to show that the action is happening to the
object.
(Subject) + (sensory verb) + (object) + (past participle verb).
E.g. He saw his video games broken.
Tips:
1. Remind your students that because sensory verbs are various and some
won’t fit into certain sentence patterns.
62
2. Having said that, here are some sentence patterns:
looked
sounded
A. Sensory verb: tasted
smelled
feel/ felt
see/ saw
hear/ heard
adjective
like + (a/ an noun or nouns)
verb
B. Sensory verb: watch/ watched + object
look at/ looked at
listen to/ listened to
C. Sensory verb: have, has/ had
see/ saw
verbing
object + past participle verb.
Notes:
SENTENCE STRUCTURE
<`sEntJns `strVktSK>
Book1, Unit 2
Sentence structures are the basic ways in which a sentence can be
constructed to make sense.
Key Points:
There are five basic sentence structures
63
1. (Subject <`sVbdjJkt>) + (object <`abdjJkt>).
E.g. Birds fly.
2. (Subject) + (verb) + (complement <`kamplJmJnt>).
E.g. Birds fly slowly.
3. (Subject) + (verb) + (object).
E.g. I kicked the ball.
4. (Subject) + (verb) + (object) + (object).
E.g. I gave my dog some dog food.
5. (Subject) + (verb) + (object) + (complement).
E.g. I made my mom happy yesterday.
There are four kinds of sentences
1. Declarative sentence (see Book 5, Unit 7)
E.g. She is a college student.
2. Interrogative sentence
E.g. Are you a college student?
3. Imperative sentence (see Book 6, Unit 4)
E.g. Don’t look.
4. Exclamatory sentence (see Book 6, Unit 9)
E.g. How hot the weather is!
Tips:
An object is the recipient of action in a sentence. (E.g. I hit the ball.)
A subject is the noun that the whole sentence is about. (E.g. I hit the ball.)
A complement is a word that helps complete the meaning of the predicate.
In the sentence, “I made my mom happy yesterday.” “ I” is the subject.
“Made” is the verb. “My mom” is the recipient of the action making “my
mom” the object. “Happy” completes the predicate making it the
complement. Noun clauses are common types of complements (see
Coordinate Clause, Principal Clause, Subordinate Clause
Book 6, Unit 4).
64
Notes:
SIMPLE PAST TENSE (BE VERB)
Book 4, Unit 3
Simple past tense is used when talking about something that happened
before now. Unlike present perfect tense the time that it occurred is known
and often stated. Unlike past continuous tense, the action occurred for a
short time.
Key Points:
1. The simple past tense structure looks like this:
(I/ He/ She/ It) + was + (noun/ adjective/ prepositional phrase).
E.g. I was a monkey.
E.g. He was fat.
E.g. She was at school.
(You/ They/ We) + were + (noun/ adjective/ prepositional phrase).
E.g. You were a monkey.
E.g. They were fat.
E.g. We were at school.
2. Structures will look like this:
(Subject) + (was/were) + (noun/ adjective/ phrase).
E.g. I was late.
(Subject) + (was/were) + not + (noun/ adjective/ phrase).
E.g. They were not ready.
(Was/ Were) + (subject) + (noun/ adjective/ phrase)?
E.g. Was Tim at the party?
(What/ When/ Where/ Why/ How) + (was/ were) + (subject) + (noun/
adjective/ phrase)?
E.g. Why was Alice angry?
Who was + (noun/ adjective/ phrase)?
E.g. Who was in the museum?
65
Tips:
1. Beware! There may be a mistake in the teacher’s copy of your book.
On page 13 it says that you can use Who + were. In newer versions of the
book this has been taken out. Check your books and check their books.
2. Here is a timeline:
3. Here is an equation:
(n./
/
) + (was/were) + (n./ adj./ prep + place).
Notes:
Simple Past Tense (verb)
Book 4, Unit 4
Simple past tense is used when talking about something that happened
before now. Unlike present perfect tense the time that it occurred is known
and often stated. Unlike past continuous tense, the action occurred for a
short time.
Key Points:
1. Past tense structure will look something like this:
(Subject) + (past tense verb + (time).
E.g. Charles went home last night.
2. For many verbs, simply add –ed to make it past tense.
3. There are many irregular verbs that do not follow the above rule.
4. When pronouncing past tense verbs ending in –ed, there are several rules.
A. When the ending sound of the verb is voiceless, -ed sounds like [-t]
66
B. When the ending sound is a voiced consonant or a vowel, -ed
sounds like [-d].
C. When the ending sound is [-t] or [-d], -ed will sound like [-Id]
Tips:
1. For an example of the timeline see Simple Past Tense (be verb).
2. Here is an equation:
(n./
/
) + (past tense verb) + (time).
3. When teaching the ending sounds that –ed can take, you might find it
useful to present the material in a chart.
Voiceless <t>
<Id>
Voiced <d>
-p
-m
-t
-k
-s
-n
-th <T>
-d
-f
Etc.
-ch
-sh
4. You also might need to supply your children with a definition of
regular and irregular verbs because they are going to hear a lot about
them from now on.
Regular (v.) = (v.)ed
Irregular (v.) = (v.) change
67
Notes:
SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE (BE VERB)
<`sImpL prEzNt tEns>
Book 4, Unit 1
Simple present tense is used when describing something that happens
everyday or an unchanging fact.
Key Points:
1. The pronoun and be verb have to agree like this:
I am + (noun/ adjective/ phrase).
E.g. I am happy.
(You/ We/ They) + are + (noun/ adjective/ phrase).
E.g. You are pretty.
(He/ She/ It) + is + (noun/ adjective/ phrase).
E.g. He is at the dentist.
Tips:
1. Your children should know this pretty well as they have had this
information since beginning their English study. This will be one of the
few lessons in which you are asked to go through two Step Into Grammar
units on the same night. Go over the combinations of pronouns and be
verbs a few times, check for comprehension and move on.
68
2. Here is a timeline:
3. Here is a be verb/ pronoun chart:
Pronoun
I
You
We
They
He
She
It
Be verb
Am
Are
Are
Are
Is
Is
is
Notes:
SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE (VERB)
<`sImpL prEzNt tEns>
Book 4, Unit 2
Simple present tense is used when describing something that happens
everyday or an unchanging fact.
69
Key Points:
1. Simple present tense is used with present fact, habit, unchangeable fact.
E.g. Fact: I am American.
E.g. Habit: I walk to school everyday.
E.g. Unchangeable Fact: The moon goes around the Earth.
2. (He, She, It) + (verb+s)
3. Sentence structures will look like this:
(Subject) + (verb)
E.g. I run everyday.
(Subject) + (do/does) + not + (verb)
E.g. He does not brush his teeth.
(Do/ Does) + (subject) + (verb)?
E.g. Does Doug have a car?
(What/ When/ Where/ Why/ How) + (do/ does) + (subject) + (verb)?
E.g. When does Rich eat breakfast?
Who + (verb+s)?
E.g. Who studies English?
Tips:
Your students should know the first person singular rule as something like
this:
(he, she, it, name) + (V+s)
Notes:
SPECIAL VERBS
Book 5, Unit 10
70
Causative verbs that makes something happen.
Verbal phrases are verbs that always need a preposition.
Key Points:
1. Some causative verbs include: get, allow, encourage, and help.
2. The structures will look like this:
A. (Subject) + (causative verb) + (object) + to + (verb).
E.g. The teacher gets the students to clean the classroom.
B. (Subject) + (causative verb) + (object) + (verb).
E.g. The boy helps the old woman cross the road.
C. (Subject) + (causative verb) + (object) + (past participle).
E.g. Nancy had her hair done last night.
3. Many verbs are followed by a preposition.
Tips:
1. Make sure your students have the patterns from Key Point 2 in their
notes.
2. For a list of verbal phrases, check out Appendix D.
Notes:
SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVES
<su`pRlJtIv `AdjIktIv>
Book 3, Unit 2
Superlative adjectives are used to compare three or more things. They
show the highest degree of a certain quality. We almost always use “the”
before the adjective.
71
Key Points:
1. For short adjectives or 2 syllable adjectives ending in -y, we usually add
–est to the end.
E.g. fastest, smartest, coolest, ugliest, happiest, busiest
2. For adjectives of 3 or more syllables, we usually use most.
E.g. most handsome, most successful, most boring
3. There are exceptions to these rules.
A. Some 2 syllable words can use “most” or –est.
B. There are irregular adjectives that don’t follow these rules.
Tips:
1. Here is a chart to help your students remember when to use “most,”
and when to use –est:
Superlative
1 syllable
2 syllables
The (adj.)-est
The most (adj.)
2. Comparative= (A>B)
Adj. + (adj.+er, adj.+r, adj.+ier, more adj.) + than
Superlative = (A> B,C,D…)
Be verb + the (adj.+est, most adj.)
3. When you see ‘the’ use comparative. When you see ‘than’ use
superlative.
Notes:
72
TAG QUESTIONS
<tAg `kwEstSJn>
Book 5, Unit 8
Tag questions are formed by adding a negative question onto a positive
statement. You can also add a positive question onto a negative statement.
Tag questions are used when the speaker knows what they want the listener
to answer or when the speaker is not sure what they want to say.
Key Points:
1. When you want to confirm a positive statement, add a negative question.
(auxiliary+n’t) + (subject). (see negative questions Book 5, Unit 6 and
auxiliaries Book 5, Unit 1).
E.g. She went to Africa, didn’t she?
2. When you want to confirm a negative statement, add a positive question.
(auxiliary) + (subject).
E.g. He doesn’t know how to swim, does he?
3. Positive sentences with positive tags are used to make a suggestion to the
listener.
E.g. Be quiet, will you?
Tips:
1. If the sentence is positive with a negative tag, then the speaker is 90%
sure the answer is positive.
If the sentence is negative with a positive tag, then the speaker is 90% sure
the answer is negative.
Notes:
73
THIRD PERSON SINGULAR RULE
STEP AHEAD 2 PATTERNS LESSON 12
This is a rule that tells us when the subject is “he, she, it” or “name,” and the
verb is present tense, then the verb will have an ‘s’ on the end.
Key Points:
1. (He, she, it, name) + (Verb+s)
E.g. He likes apples.
E.g. He wants money.
E.g. He has a kite.
E.g. He goes to school.
2. In an interrogative sentence, the ‘s’ will be on the auxiliary, “does,”
rather than the verb.
E.g. What does he like?
E.g. What does he want?
E.g. What does he have?
E.g. Where does he go?
3. In a negative sentence, the ‘s’ will be on the auxiliary “does” rather than
the verb.
E.g. He does not like apples.
E.g. He does not want money.
E.g. He does not have a kite.
E.g. He does not go to school.
4. In a simple present tense with “can,” ‘s’ is not added to the auxiliary or
the verb.
Tips: The children learn this rule pretty early in their studies. It is best to
break these three key points down into 2 simple chants:
He, she, it—s,s,s
One sentence, one ‘s’ (because does has an ‘s’ in the question and ‘no’
answer, the verb does not take an ‘s’.)
74
Appendix A: Glossary
Additions Book 6, Unit 8 <J`dISJn>
A type of sentence structure used when the speaker
wants to add more information or compare two things that they are talking about ….page
61
Adjective Book 1, Unit 1 <`AdjIktIv>
Modifies a noun….page 42
Adjective Clause Book 6, Unit 4 <`AdjIktIv
klOz> A clause that modifies the noun of
the main clause….page 20
Adjective phrase Book 6, Unit 1 <`AdjIktIv frez>
(preposition)
E.g. I am bored with beef noodles….page 46
(be verb) + (adjective) +
Adverb Book 1, Unit 1 <`AdvRb> Modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb; often ending in –
ly….page 42
Adverb Clause Book 6, Unit 4 <`AdvRb klOz>
A clause that modifies the verb of the
main clause….page 20
Adverbs of Degree Book 3, Unit 4 <`AdvRb Jv dI`gri> Adverbs that tell us how much
or how little….page 39
Adverbs of Frequency Book 3, Unit 4 <`AdvRb Jv `frikwJnsI>
A word that shows
how often a verb occurs….page 43
Adverbs of Manner Book 3, Unit 4 <`AdvRb
Jv
`mAnK>
A word that shows how the
verb acts….page 39
Adverbs of Place Book 3, Unit 4 <`AdvRb Jv ples>
place….page 39
75
A word that shows a direction of
Adverbs of Time Book 3, Unit 4 <`AdvRb Jv tZIm> A word that shows when the
verb happens….page 39
Apostrophe Book 1, Unit 3 <J`pastrJfI> Used to show possession or
contractions….page 55
Appositions Book 6, Unit 10 <:ApJ`zISJn> Nouns, noun phrases or noun clauses that
rename the noun that they follow….page 11
Auxiliaries Book 5, Unit 1 <:ZUg`zIlJrI> Verbs that help the main verb to make different
tenses like continuous tense, perfect tense or passive voice. They are sometimes called
helping verbs….page 12
Basic Auxiliaries Book 5, Unit 1 <`besIk
:ZUg`zIlJrI> Auxiliary verbs like “do” and
“does” for present tense and “did” for past tense….page 12
Be Verb <bi
vRb> am, is, are, was, were, be, being, been
Capitalization Book 1, Unit 3 <:kApJtLJ`zeSJn>
Making the first letter of a word upper-
cased as in the beginning of a sentence or to denote a proper noun….page 55
Causative Verbs Book 5, Unit 10 <`kOzJtIv
vRb> A word that expresses
causation….page 71
Clause <klOz> A unit of grammatical organization next below the sentence in rank and in
traditional grammar said to consist of a subject and predicate. See also principal clause ,
subordinate clause….page 19
Colon Book 1, Unit 3 (:) <`kolJn> Used before a list….page 55
76
Comma Book 1, Unit 3 (,) <`kamJ>
Has many uses; used whenever the reader would
take a breath….page 55
Common Nouns Book 1, Unit 4 <:kamJn
`nZUn> A place or thing that is not
capitalized….page 54
Comparative Adjectives Book 3, Unit 1 <kJm`pArJtIv
`AdjIktIv> A word used to show
the differences between two nouns….page 13
Comparison Adverbs Book 3, Unit 7
<kJm`pArJtIv
AdvRb) Adverbs that end in –er
or –est. These adverbs help to compare and contrast two or more things….page 14
Complement <`kamplJmJnt>
A word or phrase that completes the meaning of the
predicate….page 64
Conditional Sentences (if) Book 6, Unit 3 <kJn`dISJnL `sEntJns> A sentence made up of
a main clause and an “if” clause. The main clause can only happened when the “if”
clause is satisfied….page 16
Conjunctions Book 1, Unit 1 and Book 6, Unit 2 <kJn`djVnkSJn>
Words that connect
words or phrases; joining words….page 42, 18
Contraction <kJn`trEkSJn>
Putting two words together to form a new word. Often made
by putting and auxiliary and ‘not’ together.
Coordinate Clause Book 6, Unit 4 <ko`OrdN:Jt klOz>
Clauses that are identical in rank
and function; they are joined by a coordinating conjunction….page 19
Coordinating Conjunctions Book 6, Unit 2 <ko`Ordn;etIG
kJn`djVGkSJn> Coordinating
conjunctions connect two parts of a sentence that are grammatically similar. E.g. and,
but, or….page 18
77
Countable Nouns Book 1, Unit 5 <`kZUntJbL :nZUn> Objects that we can touch and
count easily….page 21
Dash Book 1, Unit 3 (⎯) <dAS>
Used to show a pause….page 55
Declarative Sentences Book 1, Unit 2 <dI`klErJtIv
`sEntJns> A sentence stating
fact….page 64
Defining Relative Clauses <`dIfZInIG :rElJtIv klOz>
The purpose of the defining
relative clause is to determine clearly whom the sentence is talking about.
Definite Article (the) Book 1, Unit 7 <:dEfJnIt `artIkL> The….page 22
Demonstrative Adjectives Book 2, Unit 4
<dI`man:strJtIv
`AdjIktIv> When “this,”
“that,” “these,” and “those” are placed in front of a noun, they become adjectives….page
23
Demonstrative Pronouns Book 2, Unit 4 <dI`man:strJtIv
:pronZUn>
This, that, these,
those….page 23
Determiners Book 2, Unit 5 <dI`tRmInK>
Used in front of nouns to indicate whether you
are referring to something specific or something of a particular type. E.g. a, the,
every….page 36
Direct Objects Book 2, Unit 2 <dJ`rEkt
`abdjIkt> The recipient of the action in a
sentence. In the sentence, “I hit the ball,” the action ‘hit,’ is happening to the ball making
“the ball,” the DO….page 24
Direct Questions Book 5, Unit 7 and Book 6, Unit 7 <dJ`rEkt
sentences; they have question marks….page 27, 24
78
`kwEstSJn> Interrogative
Direct Speech Book 6, Unit 6 <dJ`rEkt spitS> Quoted speech….page 25
Ellipses Book 1, Unit 3 (…) <I`lIpsiz> Used to show that the speaker is not finished
talking….page 56
Exclamation Mark Book 1, Unit 3 (!) <EksklJ`meSJn `mark> Used to denote the end of
an exclamatory sentence….page 55
Exclamatory Sentences Book 1, Unit 2, Book 6, Unit 9 <Ik`sklAmJ:tOrI `sEntJns>
A
sudden cry or remark expressing surprise, anger or pain….page 64, 38
Future Continuous Tense (will be verb+ing) Book 4, Unit 8 <`fyUtSK kJn`tInyUJs tEns>
A tense that shows action at one time in the future. The action will have already started
but not yet finished….page 30
Future Tense (will/ be going to) Book 4, Unit 7 <`fyUtSK tEns> A tense that shows that
action will happen….page 35
Gerunds Book 6, Unit 5 <`djErJnd>
(verb+ing) words that are used as nouns….page 33
Hyphen Book 1, Unit 3 (-) <`hZIfJn> Smaller than a dash, used to combine
words….page 55
“If” Clause Book 6, Unit 3 <`If klOz> The part of a conditional sentence that begins
with “if.” ….page 16
Imperatives Book 1, Unit 2 and Book 6, Unit 5 <Im`pErJtIv> Sentences that show a
mood, often commanding….page 64, 34
Indefinite Articles (a, an) Book 1, Unit 6 <In`dEfJnIt `artIkL> a, an….page 35
79
Indefinite Pronouns Book 2, Unit 5 <In`dEfJnIt :pronZUn>
A “no name noun” that does
not refer to any particular noun. E.g. someone, anyone, somebody….page 36
Indirect Objects Book 2, Unit 2 <:IndJ`rEkt
`abdjIkt> The recipient of the direct object,
or an otherwise affected participant in the event. (In the sentence, “I sent him a letter,”
‘him’ is the direct obeject and ‘a letter’ is also affected by the verb making ‘a letter’ the
indirect object….page 24
Indirect Questions Book 6, Unit 7 <:IndJ`rEkt `kwEstSJn> Reported questions; they end
in a period rather than a question mark….page 24
Indirect Speech Book 6, Unit 6 <:IndJ`rEkt spitS>
Reported speech. It is not
quoted….page 25
Infinitives Book 5, Unit 4 <In`fInJtIv> to + (verb) ….page 37
Infinitive Phrase <In`fInJtIv
frez> A phrase beginning with (to+ verb)
Interjections Book 1, Unit 1 and Book 6, Unit 9 <:IntK`djEkSJn>
An exclamatory word,
often followed by an exclamation point….page 42, 38
Interrogative Adverbs Book 3, Unit 4 <:IntJ`ragJtIv
`AdvRb> Question words: who,
what, when, where, why, how….page 39
Interrogative Sentences Book 1, Unit 2 <:IntJ`ragJtIv sEntJns>
Questions….page 64
Inversions Book 6, Unit 10 <In`vRjJn> Sentences that begin with a word other than the
subject….page 11
Modal Auxiliaries Book 5, Unit 1 <`modL :ZUg`zIlJrI> All the auxiliary verbs except be,
do and have are called modals. Unlike other auxiliary verbs modals only exist in their
80
helping form; they cannot act alone as the main verb in a sentence.
Be, do, and have also differ from the other auxiliaries in that they can also serve as
ordinary verbs in a given sentence.
The modal auxiliaries are: can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, must, have
to, has to….page 12
Negative Sentences Book 5, Unit 6 <`nEgJtIv `sEntJns>
A sentence that contains “no,”
“not,” or “never.” ….page 40
Negative Questions Book 5, Unit 6 <`nEgJtIv `kwEstSJn> A question with “no,” “not” or
“never.” ….page 40
Non-Defining Relative Clause <nan`dIfZIniG :rElJtIv klOz>
As apposed to the defining
relative clause, the non-defining relative clause adds interesting information to the
sentence, but is in now way essential.
Non-Restrictive Appositions Book 6, Unit 10 <:nanrI`stIktIv :ApJ`zISJn> A word or
phrase that renames a noun. Non-restrictive appositions are set apart from the rest of the
sentence by a set of commas….page 11
Noun Book 1, Unit 1 <nZUn> A person, place, or thing….page 42
Noun Clause Book 6, Unit 4 <nZUn klOz>
A clause (see Clause) that begins with
“that.” ….page 20
Noun Phrase Book 6, Unit 10 <nZUn frez> A group of words that together function as
the subject, object or prepositional object….page 11
Object <`abdjIkt> The object of the sentence is the recipient of the action….page 66
81
Object Complement <`abdjIkt `kamplJmJnt> A phrase following the object to complete
its meaning. (E.g. He finds this music very pleasant.)
Object Pronouns Book 2, Unit 1 <`abdjIkt :pronZUn> Pronouns placed after the verb in
the sentence. E.g. me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them….page 53
Participle Book 5, Unit 3 <`partJsJpL> A word formed from a verb that can function
within a verb phrase….page 48
Parts of Speech
Book 1, Unit 1 <:parts Jv `spits>
A category to which a word is
assigned in accordance with its syntactic functions. See noun, pronoun, adjective,
determiner, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection….page 42
Passive Voice Book 5, Unit 2 <`pAsIv
vOIs> A sentence structure used when the object
is more important than the subject; the subject is often times omitted all together….page
43
Past Continuous Tense (was/were verbing) Book 4, Unit 6 <`past kJn`tInyUJs tEns>
A
tense used to show that the subject was in the middle of doing an action sometime before
now….page 44
Past Participle Book 5, Unit 3 <`past
`partJsJpL>
The form of the verb that often ends
in –ed, although there are many irregular forms….page 48
Period Book 1, Unit 3 (.) <`pIrIJd> Used to denote the end of a declarative
sentence….page 55
Plural Noun <`plUrJl
nZUn> A noun of which there are more than one.
Possessive Adjectives Book 2, Unit 1 <pJ`zEsIv
:AdjIktIv>
Words that come before a
noun to tell that the noun belongs to someone. E.g. his, her, our, my….page 53
82
Possessive Pronouns Book 2, Unit 1 <pJ`zEsIv :pronZUn>
Words that replace the
possessive adjective and the noun in a sentence. E.g. mine, ours, hers, his, theirs….page
53
Preposition Book 1, Unit 1 and Book 6, Unit 1 <:prEpJ`zISJn>
Words that tell us more
about time and place….page 42, 46
Preposition phrase Book 6, Unit 1
<:prEpJ`zISJn frez> (preposition) + (noun) E.g. I
go to school by scooter….page 46
Prepositional Object <:prEpJ`zISJnL
`abdjIkt> The words that follow prepositions to
make prepositional phrases. (In the sentence, “I was at home,” ‘at’ is the preposition and
‘home’ is the object of the preposition.)
Prepositions of Place Book 6, Unit 1 <:prEpJ`zISJn Vv ples>
Words that tell us
where….page 46
Prepositions of Time Book 6, Unit 1 <:prEpJ`zISJn Vv tZIm>
Words that tell us
when….page 46
Present Continuous Tense (am/is/are + verbing) Book 4, Unit 5
<`prEzNt kJn`tInyUJs tEns>
A tense that tells us that an action is happening now….page
47
Present Participle Book 5, Unit 3 <`prEzNt `partJsJpL> The (verb+ing) form of a
verb….page 48
Present Perfect Continuous Tense (have/ has been verbing) Book 4, Unit 10
<`prEzNt `pRfIkt kJn`tInyUJs tEns>
Present perfect continuous tense tells us about
action that began in the past and has continued until now or recently ended….page 50
83
Present Perfect Tense (have/ has done) Book 4, Unit 9 <`prEzNt `pRfIkt tEns>
A tense
used to describe action that began at some time in the past and has ended sometime
before now. This tense is useful in two situations: 1. Experience. 2. Finished
action….page 51
Principal Clause Book 6, Unit 4 <`prInsJpL klOz> The most important part of the
sentence; the main clause….page 19
Pronouns Book 1, Unit 1 and Book 2, Unit 1 <`pronZUn>
Words that take the place of a
noun, a no-name noun….page 42, 53
Proper Nouns Book 1, Unit 4 <:prapK `nZUn> Cities, countries, nationalities,
languages, places, addresses, months, days of the week, holidays. These words need to be
capitalized….page 54
Punctuation Book 1, Unit 3 <:pVGktSU`eSJn>
The marks, such as period, comma, and
parentheses, used in writing to separate sentences and their elements and to clarify
meaning….page 55
Qualitative Adjectives Book 2, Unit 7 <`kwalJ:tetIv
:AdjIktIv> Used to describe the
shape, size, color (etc.) of a noun….page 56
Quantitative Adjectives Book 2, Unit 7 <`kwantJ:tetIv :AdjIktIv> Used to describe the
amount of a noun….page 56
Question Mark Book 1, Unit 3 (?) <:kwEstSJn `mark>
Used to denote the end of an
interrogative sentence….page 55
Quotation Marks Book 1, Unit 3 (“ ”) <kwo`teSJn `mark> Used to indicate other
people’s words….page 56
84
Reflexive Pronouns Book 2, Unit 3 <rI`flEksIv
:pronZUn> Pronouns that refer back to
the subject of the clause in which they are found….page 57
Relative Clause <`rElJtIv
klOz> A clause beginning with the relative pronoun, that,
which, who or whom….page 59
Relative Pronouns Book 2, Unit 6 <`rElJtIv :pronZUn> Pronouns that refer to something
that has already been talked about. E.g. which, who, that….page 58
Responses Book 6, Unit 8 <rI`spans>
Something the listener says when they agree with
what the speaker has just said….page 61
Restrictive Appositions Book 6, Unit 10 <rI`strIktIv :ApJ`zISJn>
Words or phrases that
rename proper nouns. Restrictive appositions do not need to be set aside by a
comma….page 11
Semicolon Book 1, Unit 3 (;) <`semI:kolJn> Used to replace “and” in joining two
sentences….page 55
Sensory Verbs Book 5, Unit 9 <`sEnsJrI
vRb> Verbs that tell us about our 5
senses….page 62
Similes Book 3, Unit 7 <`sImJ:lI>
A sentence structure used when two things are equal
in a given quality….page 15
Simple Past Tense Book 4, Unit 3 and Book 4, Unit 4 <`sImpL
prEzNt tEns> The
structure of a sentence that shows the actions has happened sometime before now….page
65, 66
85
Simple Present Tense Book 4, Unit 1 and Book 4, Unit 2 <`sImpL prEzNt tEns> The
structure of a sentence that shows a habit, present fact or unchanging fact….page 68, 69
Singular Noun Book 4, Unit 1 <`siGgyJlK nZUn>
The form of the noun used when there
is only one of that noun or when the noun is uncountable….page 64
Subject <`sVbdjIkt> A noun phrase functioning as one of the main components of a
clause, being the element about which the rest of the clause is predicated….page 66
Subject Pronouns Book 2, Unit 1 <`sVbdjIkt `pronZUn> Pronouns placed before the
verb in a sentence. E.g. I, you, he, she, it, they, we….page 52
Subordinate Clause Book 6, Unit 4 <sJ`bOrdNIt klOz>
A clause with a subject and verb
that still relies on the principal clause for complete meaning….page 19
Subordinating Conjunctions Book 6, Unit 2 <sJ`bOrdNetIG
kJn`djVGkSJn> A word or
phrase that joins a subordinate clause to a main clause. E.g. although, because….page 18
Superlative Adjectives Book 3, Unit 2 <su`pRlJtIv `AdjIktIv> The form of an adjective
that shows a person, place or thing has the highest degree of a certain quality….page 71
Tag Questions Book 5, Unit 8 <tAg ``kwEstSJn> Questions used when the speaker
wants agreement with what they said in the principal clause of the sentence….page 73
Tense <tEns>
A set of forms taken by a verb to indicate the time (and sometimes also the
continuance or completeness) of the action in relation to the time of the utterance. See:
simple past tense, simple present tense, present continuous tense, past continuous
tense, future continuous tense, future tense, present perfect tense, and present
perfect continuous tense
Transitive Verb <`trAnsJtIv vRb> A verb that usually takes an object.
86
Uncountable Nouns Book 1, Unit 5 <Vn`kZUntJbL
`nZUn> Objects like liquids that are
impossible to count….page 21
Verbal Phrases Book 5, Unit 10 <vRbL frez> A verb that always has a preposition
behind it….page 46, 71
Verbs Book 1, Unit 1 <vRb> An action or state; something we can do….page 42
87
Appendix B : Irregular Verbs
Base
Simple Past Past
Participle
Arise
Arose
Arisen
Awake
Awoke
Awoken
Be
Was/ Were
Been
Bear
Bore
Borne
Beat
Beat
Beaten
Become
Became
Become
Begin
Began
Begun
Bend
Bent
Bend
Bet
Bet
Bet
Bite
Bit
Bitten
Bleed
Bled
Bled
Blow
Blew
Blown
Break
Broke
Broken
Bring
Brought
Brought
Build
Built
Built
Burn
Burned
Burnt
Buy
Bought
Bought
Catch
Caught
Caught
Choose
Chose
Chosen
Come
Came
Come
Cost
Cost
Cost
Cut
Cut
Cut
Dig
Dug
Dug
Do
Did
Done
Draw
Drew
Drawn
Dream
Dreamed
Dreamt
Drink
Drank
Drunk
Drive
Drove
Driven
Eat
Ate
Eaten
Fall
Fell
Fallen
Feed
Fed
Fed
Feel
Felt
Felt
Fight
Fought
Fought
Find
Found
Found
Fit
Fit
Fit
Flee
Fled
Fled
Fly
Flew
Flown
Forbid
Forbade
Forbidden
Forget
Forgot
Forgotten
Forgive
Forgave
Forgiven
Freeze
Froze
Frozen
Get
Got
Gotten
Base
Simple Past
Give
Go
Grow
Hang
Have
Hear
Hide
Hit
Hold
Hurt
Keep
Kneel
Know
Lay
Lead
Leap
Leave
Lend
Let
Lie
Light
Lose
Make
Mean
Pay
Put
Quit
Read [rid]
Ride
Ring
Run
Say
See
Send
Shake
Shave
Shine
Shoot
Show
Shrink
Shut
Sing
Gave
Went
Grew
Hung
Had
Heard
Hid
Hit
Held
Hurt
Kept
Kneeled
Knew
Laid
Led
Leapt
Left
Lent
Let
Lay
Lit
Lost
Made
Meant
Paid
Put
Quit
Read [rεd]
Rode
Rang
Ran
Said
Saw
Sent
Shook
Shaved
Shined
Shot
Showed
Shrank
Shut
Sang
88
Past
Participle
Given
Gone
Grown
Hung
Had
Heard
Hidden
Hit
Held
Hurt
Kept
Knelt
Known
Laid
Led
Leapt
Left
Lent
Let
Lain
Lit
Lost
Made
Meant
Paid
Put
Quit
Read [rεd]
Ridden
Rung
Run
Said
Seen
Sent
Shaken
Shaved
Shone
Shot
Shown
Shrunk
Shut
Sung
Base
Simple Past
Sink
Sit
Slay
Sleep
Slide
Sneak
Speak
Speed
Spend
Spill
Spin
Spit
Split
Spread
Spring
Stand
Steal
Stick
Sting
Stink
Strew
Strike
Sank
Sat
Slew
Slept
Slid
Sneaked
Spoke
Sped
Spent
Spilled
Spun
Spit
Split
Spread
Sprang
Stood
Stole
Stuck
Stung
Stank
Strewed
Struck
Past
Participle
Sunk
Sat
Slain
Slept
Slid
Snuck
Spoken
Sped
Spent
Spilt
Spun
Spat
Split
Spread
Sprung
Stood
Stolen
Stuck
Stung
Stunk
Strewn
Stricken
Base
Simple Past
Swear
Sweep
Swell
Swim
Swing
Take
Teach
Tear
Tell
Think
Throw
Undergo
Understand
Upset
Wake
Wear
Weave
Weep
Wet
Wind
Wring
Write
Swore
Swept
Swelled
Swam
Swung
Took
Taught
Tore
Told
Thought
Threw
Underwent
Understood
Upset
Woke
Wore
Wove
Wept
Wet
Wound
Wrung
Wrote
Appendix C: Verbs Learned in Step Ahead 12
Base
Simple Past Past
Base
Participle
Be
Was/ were
Been
Feel
Become
Became
Become
Fight
Begin
Began
Begun
Find
Bite
Bit
Bitten
Fly
Blow
Blew
Blown
Forgot
Break
Broke
Broken
Forgive
Bring
Brought
Brought
Get
Can
Could
-Give
Catch
Caught
Caught
Go
Come
Came
Come
Grow
Cut
Cut
Cut
Hang
Do
Did
Done
Have
Draw
Drew
Drawn
Hear
Drink
Drank
Drunk
Hide
Drive
Drove
Driven
Hit
Eat
Ate
Eaten
Hold
Fall
Fell
Fallen
Hurt
89
Simple Past
Felt
Fought
Found
Flew
Forgot
Forgave
Got
Gave
Went
Grew
Hung
Had
Heard
Hid
Hit
Held
Hurt
Past
Participle
Sworn
Swept
Swollen
Swum
Swung
Taken
Taught
Torn
Told
Thought
Thrown
Undergone
Understood
Upset
Waken
Worn
Woven
Wept
Wet
Wound
Wrung
written
Past
Participle
Felt
Fought
Found
Flown
Forgotten
Forgiven
Got/ Gotten
Given
Gone
Grown
Hung
Had
Heard
Hidden
Hit
Held
Hurt
Keep
Know
Leave
Let
Lie
Lose
Make
Mean
Pay
Put
Read [rid]
Ride
Ring
Run
Say
See
Sell
Send
Set
Shake
Kept
Knew
Left
Let
Lay
Lost
Made
Meant
Paid
Put
Read [rεd]
Rode
Rang
Ran
Said
Saw
Sold
Sent
Set
Shook
Kept
Known
Left
Let
Lain
Lost
Made
Meant
Paid
Put
Read [rεd]
Ridden
Rung
Run
Said
Seen
Sold
Sent
Set
Shaken
Show
Sing
Sit
Sleep
Speak
Spend
Stand
Steal
Sweep
Swim
Take
Teach
Tell
Think
Throw
Understand
Wake
Wear
Win
Write
90
Showed
Sang
Sat
Slept
Spoke
Spent
Stood
Stole
Swept
Swam
Took
Taught
Told
Thought
Threw
Understood
Woke
Wore
Won
Wrote
Shown
Sung
Sat
Slept
Spoken
Spent
Stood
Stolen
Swept
Swum
Taken
Taught
Told
Thought
Thrown
Understood
Woken
Worn
Won
Written
Appendix D: Verbal Phrases
Advise against
Apologize for
Approve of
Back out
Bear up
Be familiar with
Believe in
Brush up
Carry on
Catch up
Choose between
Come about
Come across
Come along
Come apart
Come around
Come between
Come by
Come down with
Come in
Come into
Come off
Come out
Come over
Come through
Come to
Come up
Come upon
Come up with
Complain about
Count on
Cut down on
Deal with
Do without
Get by
Get even
Get into
Get off
Get on
Get out of
Get over
Get rid of
Get through
Get through to
Dream about/ of
Get to know
Get up
Give up on
Go back on
Go in for
Go through
Hurry up with
Insist on
Keep up with
Laugh at
Let up
Listen in on
Feel like
Fill in for
Follow up on
Get about
Get after
Get ahead
Get along
Get around
Get away
Get back
Get behind
Get through with
Listen to
Live up to
Look after
Look at
Look back on
Look down on
Look for
Look forward to
Look like
Look out for
Look up to
Make up
Object to
Part with
Plan on
Put up with
Rely on
Resort to
Run across
Run into
Run out of
Run through
Stand up to
Stick to
Stoop to
Succeed in
Take after
Take care of
Talk about
Think about
Try out for
Turn into
Turn out for
Turn up
Wait for
Walk out on
Watch out for
Wonder about
Work up to
Write about
Appendix E: Timelines
Simple present tense timeline.
The circles show that an action
happens habitually or the action
will always happen without fail.
Present continuous tense timeline.
The wavy line shows that the
action has begun in the past,
is happening now, and will likely
continue some time into the future.
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Simple past tense timeline.
This timeline shows that the action
happened at a particular time in
the past. The action happened
for a short time.
Past continuous tense.
This timeline shows that an action
happened in the past for a long time.
When this action was in progress,
something else happened.
Future tense timeline.
This timeline shows that action
will happen in the future for
a short time.
Future continuous tense timeline.
This timeline shows that an
action will take place for a lone
time in the future. While the action
is in progress, another action will occur.
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Present perfect tense timelines.
The first timeline shows that an action happened
in the past. The second timeline shows that an
action has just occurred.
Present perfect continuous tense.
The first timeline shows that an action
began before now, but is somehow related
to now.
E.g. I have been studying English.
The second timeline shows that
an action began in the past
and has continued until now
Past perfect tense timeline.
There are two actions in this
timeline.
The circle represents one action
that happened in the past. The question mark
represents another action that happened before the first.
E.g. I studied English before I went to Australia.
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Appendix F: Web Resources
www.learnenglish.de
www.nclrc.org/essentials/grammar/grindex.htm
www.kimskorner4teachertalk.com/grammar/menu.htm
www.songsforteaching.com/grammarspelling.htm
http://esl.about.com
www.eslbase.com/grammar
www.siu.edu/~cest/teachers/know/grammar.html
http://grammar.uoregon.edu/toc.html
.
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