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08/05/2017 B7 Further Biology (OCR 21st Century) M Barker Shirebrook Academy B7.1 Peak Performance – Movement and Exercise 08/05/2017 The Skeletal System 08/05/2017 The internal skeleton of a vertebrate does 3 jobs: 1) It gives the body SHAPE 2) It allows the body to MOVE 3) It PROTECTS the major organs Joint Movement 08/05/2017 A typical joint – the knee 08/05/2017 Ligaments – hold the joint together Synovial fluid – an oily substance that reduces friction Cartilage – stops the bones from rubbing against each other Medical History Assessment 08/05/2017 Tobacco consumption Level of physical activity Family medical history Symptoms Factors to be included in a medical assessment Previous treatments Alcohol consumption Current Medication Medical Treatment Project 08/05/2017 Task: Produce a project (PowerPoint, leaflet, poster etc) on how medical treatments are administered. Your project should include information on the following: 1) How patient assessments are carried out 2) The benefits of regular contact and detailed record keeping 3) What needs to be done after a diagnosis 4) How and why physiotherapy might be administered 5) How progress can be monitored and assessed 6) Injuries – sprains, torn ligaments, dislocations etc, including what they are and how you treat them. Body-Mass Index 08/05/2017 A commonly-used way to indicate is someone is overweight or underweight is the Body Mass Index (BMI): BMI = Mass (kg) Height2 (m2) BMI Meaning <18.5 Underweight 18.5-25 Ideal 25-30 Overweight 30-40 Obese Common Injuries 08/05/2017 What are these injuries? Sprained ankle Dislocated shoulder Torn ligament Treating a Sprained Ankle 08/05/2017 Here’s a sprained ankle: To treat a sprained ankle you’d use the RICE method R– Rest I– Ice C– Compression E- Elevation B7.2 Peak Performance Circulation 08/05/2017 The Circulatory system 08/05/2017 The circulatory system is responsible for pumping ______ around the body. We need blood to be taken around the body because blood contains ________ and _______. These are needed so that all the ____ in our bodies can produce _____ through _________. The main organs in the circulatory system are the _____, the lungs and the kidneys. Words – energy, heart, blood, glucose, respiration, oxygen, cells The four parts of blood 1. RED BLOOD CELLS – packed with haemoglobin and carry ______ around the body. They have no _______ and a bioconcave shape for increased surface area. 2. PLATELETS – small bits of cells that lie around waiting for a cut to happen so that they can ____ (for a scab). 3. WHITE BLOOD CELLS – kill invading _______ by producing _________ or engulfing (“eating”) the microbe. These three are all carried around by the PLASMA (a straw-coloured liquid). Plasma transports CO2 and ______ as well as taking away waste products to the ______. Words – antibodies, clot, kidneys, oxygen, nucleus, glucose, microbes. 08/05/2017 The Heart 08/05/2017 1. Deoxygenated blood (i.e. blood without oxygen) enters through the vena cava into the right atrium 4. Oxygenated blood from the lungs enters through the pulmonary vein into the left atrium 2. It’s then pumped through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle 5. It’s then pumped through the bicuspid valve into the left ventricle 3. It’s then pumped through the semi-lunar valve up to the lungs through the pulmonary artery 6. It’s then pumped out of the aorta to the rest of the body “Double Circulation” 1) Blood gets pumped from the heart to the lungs and picks up oxygen. The haemoglobin in the cells becomes oxyhaemoglobin 5) After the oxygen and glucose have been removed for respiration the blood is sent back to the heart and starts again 08/05/2017 2) The blood is then taken back to the heart… 3) The heart pumps the blood to the intestine (where oxygen and glucose are removed). The oxyhaemoglobin is split up into oxygen and haemoglobin… 4) … and to the rest of the body (where oxygen is also removed) Capillaries and Capillary tissue 08/05/2017 Here’s a capillary: Capillaries are tiny blood vessels that have permeable walls so that substances can diffuse in and out (like oxygen in the lungs and glucose in the intestine). Here’s how this works: Capillary Tissue fluid Surrounding cells As blood passes through the capillary beds molecules like oxygen and glucose are forced out to form the tissue fluid. They then diffuse out into the cells and substances like carbon dioxide and urea diffuse back into the capillaries. B7.3 Peak Performance – Energy Balance 08/05/2017 Body Temperature 08/05/2017 Nerve endings in the skin detect the external temperature Temperature detectors in the brain (the hypothalamus) detect the blood temperature The brain coordinates a response using hormones Effectors (muscles and sweat glands) carry out the response. Some effectors work “antagonistacally” – what does this mean? Maintaining Body Temperature 08/05/2017 Here are two ways your body will change to lose surplus heat: Cold Hot Vasodilation Excessive exercise can lead to dehydration, which may lead Vasoconstriction to reduced sweating and a further increase in body temperature. Low Body temperature 08/05/2017 What does your body do to try to keep body temperature constant when you are cold? Shivering occurs, which results in some of the energy transferred in respiration being used to warm the surrounding tissue. Also, blood vessels constrict (“vasoconstriction”) in order to restrict blood flow through skin capillaries. Diabetes 08/05/2017 What is diabetes? What do the pens (above right) do? What does an insulin injection (above left) do? What is the difference between Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes? How does physical activity affect Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetics? Diabetes 08/05/2017 Diabetes is a ________ in which a person’s blood sugar (i.e. glucose) level may rise to a _______ level. Type 1 diabetes is when the ______ doesn’t produce enough _________, whereas type 2 diabetes is when the body no longer responds to its own insulin or doesn’t make enough of it. Type 1 diabetes can be controlled using insulin ________ whereas type 2 diabetes can be controlled by careful _______ and exercise. Diabetics have to test their blood sugar level before they decide how much insulin to _______ themselves with. Diets high in fibre and complex carbohydrates can help to maintain a healthy sugar level. Words – insulin, disease, inject, dangerous, eating, pancreas, injections Diabetes and Obesity 08/05/2017 % obesity of US population No. of people (in millions) with Diabetes More interesting statistics… 08/05/2017 No. of fast food outlets No. of people (in millions) with Diabetes B7.4 What can we learn from natural ecosystems? 08/05/2017 Ecosystems 08/05/2017 “Ecosystem” is a term used to describe all of the organisms living together as a community in a particular habitat and can often be self-supporting other than the need for an energy source. Possible waste products from an ecosystem: Oxygen from trees Carbon dioxide from animals Waste products Dead organic matter Notice that waste products from some organisms are used by other organisms – this is a “closed loop” system and a perfect closed loop is when nothing is wasted. 08/05/2017 An example of a loop in an ecosystem - Carbon CO2 in air 6. These microbes also release CO2 through respiration 5. Animals (and plants) die and their remains are fed on by microbes 2. Plants release CO2 through respiration 1. CO2 is taken in by plants 4. Animals release CO2 through respiration Notice that no ecosystem is a perfect closed loop due to the loss of some output. Where could this happen in the carbon cycle? 3. The carbon taken in by plants is then eaten by animals Stable Ecosystems 08/05/2017 A “stable ecosystem” is one where the outputs (losses) are balanced by gains, e.g. a rainforest: Examples of why a rainforest is a closed ecosystem: Some organisms produce large numbers of reproductive structures like eggs and flowers. The ones that don’t survive into adulthood are recycled into the ecosystem. The vegetation prevents soil erosion (by binding the soil) and extremes of temperature and also encourages cloud formation, so that whatever is lost from a river is replaced by rainfall Human impact on ecosystems 08/05/2017 Humans rely on ecosystems for lots of things, including: - Clean air - Fish - Water - Game/meat - Food Is it possible for humans to run a closed ecosystem on our own? - Non-recycled waste? - Burning fossil fuels? Here are some ways in which humans can affect an ecosystem: Accumulation of pesticides 08/05/2017 Insecticides can wash into a stream or lake where they are taken up by microscopic water plants. Consider the food chain: Although the level of insecticides in the plants is small, it will build up through the food chain due to the number of organisms in each stage. In this example, if each plant had “one bit” of pesticide, the bird will have eaten 9 bits. Eutrophication 08/05/2017 Yet another example of pollution, eutrophication is when lakes become stagnant due to careless use of fertiliser. There are six steps: 1) Inorganic fertilisers used on fields are washed into the lake 3) This growth causes overcrowding and many plants die due to lack of enough light or food 2) The fertiliser causes increased growth in water plants Eutrophication 4) Microorganisms and bacteria increase in number due to the extra dead material 08/05/2017 6) The lack of oxygen causes the death of fish and other aquatic animals Can’t…breathe… 5) These microorganisms use up the oxygen in the lake during respiration Eutrophication 4) Microorganisms and bacteria increase in number due to the extra dead material 08/05/2017 6) The lack of oxygen causes the death of fish and other aquatic animals 5) These microorganisms use up the oxygen in the lake during respiration 08/05/2017 Removing Biomass from an Ecosystem Deforestation occurs when biomass like trees is removed from a natural closed loop system for use by humans: Over-fishing in a lake can also be unsustainable. Sustainable Development 08/05/2017 Sustainable development is all about preserving the world for tomorrow. The main point is – “don’t use resources at a rate quicker than they are made” Examples of sustainable development include: 1) Replanting trees after chopping them down 2) Limiting the number of fish allowed in a catch (a “quota”) 3) Protecting endangered species Crude Oil 08/05/2017 Here’s some crude oil: Crude oil can never be considered part of a closed system as it takes millions of years to form. Crude oil is formed from the decay of dead organisms, who basically got their energy from the sun millions of years ago – crude oil is called “fossil sunlight energy”. The sun is a sustainable source of energy for natural ecosystems and sustainable agriculture – without it, we can’t survive! 08/05/2017 Natural Ecosystems and Human Needs Natural ecosystems should be preserved but we also need to look after our basic needs! Some societies have tried replacing natural vegetation with agricultural crops and livestock, but this can often lead to problems like a loss of biodiversity or desertification B7.5 New Technologies 08/05/2017 Using Bacteria 08/05/2017 Here are some pictures of bacteria: Bacteria are useful for industrial and genetic processes for many reasons: - Rapid _________ - Presence of ________ - Simple biochemistry - Ability to make complex _________ - Lack of ______ concerns Bacteria and fungi can be grown on large scales (__________) to produce things like antibiotics, single-cell proteins, enzymes for food and enzymes for products like ________ ______ and biofuels. Words – washing powder, molecules, reproduction, plasmids, fermentation, ethical Genetic modification - Insulin 08/05/2017 Insulin is a hormone produced by the pancreas to help control blood sugar levels. Diabetics can’t produce enough insulin and often need to inject it. Until recently, insulin was taken from pigs and cows. Insulin can now be made by genetic modification. Genetic modification is when a gene from one organism is transferred to another and continues to work: Genetic modification - Insulin 08/05/2017 Step 1: Using RESTRICTION ENZYMES “cut out” the part of the human chromosome that is responsible for producing insulin. Step 2: Using another restriction enzyme cut open a ring of bacterial DNA (a “plasmid”). Other enzymes are then used to insert the piece of human DNA into the plasmid. Step 3: Place the plasmid into a bacterium which will start to divide rapidly. As it divides it will replicate the plasmid and make millions of them, each with the instruction to produce insulin. Commercial quantities of insulin can then be produced. The Steps in Genetic Modification 08/05/2017 Here are the basic steps in genetic modification: Step 1 – isolate and replicate the required gene Step 2 – put the gene into a suitable vector (virus or plasmid) Step 3 – use the vector to insert the gene into a new cell Step 4 – select the modified individuals As well as making insulin, this procedure can also be used to make herbicide resistance in plants. How would this help food production? Genetic Modification Advantages Improving crop yield Improving resistance to pesticides Extend shelf-life Manufacture a certain chemical (e.g. insulin) Convenience 08/05/2017 Disadvantages Genetically modified organisms may be expensive Unknown effects on ecosystems Effects may be passed on to other crops, e.g. weed resistance spreading from crops to weeds Ethical issues Genetic Testing Task: Produce a report describing how genetic testing (e.g. finding out who the real father is) is done. 08/05/2017 I am your father Your report should include: 1) How genetic testing is done (in 3 or 4 stages) 2) The role of DNA and UV in the process 3) Other examples of things that can be genetically tested How Genetic Testing works 08/05/2017 Here are the four stages in genetic testing: Isolate the DNA sample from white blood cells Produce the gene probe labelled with a fluorescent chemical – this will find the faulty gene Add the labelled gene probe (marker) to the DNA sample to find the faulty gene Use UV to detect the marker and therefore indicate the position of the gene or the presence of a specific allele in the DNA sample Gene probe Gene probe Faulty gene Gene probe Faulty gene Nanotechnology 08/05/2017 Definition: Nanotechnology is a new branch of science that refers to structures built from a few hundred atoms and are 1100nm big (i.e. about the size of a molecule). They show different properties to the same materials in bulk, partly because they also have a large surface area to volume ratio and their properties could lead to new developments in computers, building materials etc. Two examples of nanotechnology 08/05/2017 Silver nanoparticles can be used to give fibres antibacterial properties – look at what they do to e-coli bacteria: Normal e-coli E-coli affected by silver nanoparticles Nanotechnology can also be used to detect contaminants – for example, a milk carton could tell you when the milk has gone off. Stem Cell research A stem cell is a cell that hasn’t yet specialised into other forms of cell: 08/05/2017 Adult stem cells can potentially be used to treat leukaemia and spinal chord injuries. Ciliated epithelial cell White blood cell Nerve cell (neurone) Egg cell (ovum) Biomedical Engineering Biomedical engineering is when devices like pacemakers and artificial valves are used to treat heart problems or irregular heartbeats: 08/05/2017