Download The placebo effect in marketing: Unexplored influence of brand

The placebo effect in marketing:
Unexplored influence of brand name
Daria Chigirinova
University of Kassel
1
Abstract
The given study investigates the influence of brand name on the actual efficacy of the
products. It was noticed long ago that marketing actions could affect the perception of a product
and even the subjective experiences of a consumer such as taste or quality. However, recently it
was proved with a series of experiments that marketing actions are able to influence the actual
effectiveness of a product. Such effect was linked with theoretical background and processes of
placebo phenomenon from medical sphere and received the same name – placebo effect. This
phenomenon is quite new and thus has numerous gaps in the research, one of which is intended
to be filled by the given study. The first research question investigates the possible influence of a
brand name on the effectiveness of a product, whereas the second research question is designed
to understand the effect of expectancies on the magnitude of the placebo effect produced by the
brand name. The empirical part of the given research presents a crossover between-subject
experiment, aimed at evaluating the influence of Red Bull® brand name on the effectiveness of
the energy drink.
2
Introduction
Stewart-Williams and Podd (2004) describe placebo effect as a genuine psychological or
physiological effect produced by a substance or a procedure that has no inherent power to create
that effect. Placebo is a phenomenon that has been broadly studied in the field of medicine and
psychology. Substantial results were achieved in studies regarding the placebo effect in curing
pain (e.g., Montgomery & Kirsch, 1996).
Recently the placebo effect has also received much attention from the side of marketing
researchers that strive to deepen their knowledge about the influence of various psychological
concepts on consumers’ behavior. It is well known that manipulations with various marketing
variables (e.g. price changes, packaging, distribution channels) can significantly influence
consumer’s beliefs and expectations and hence change their perceptions of a product, their
consumption experiences and even purchase behaviors (Shiv, Carmon, & Ariely, 2005a). Even
though the placebo effect has been studied a lot in the past 60 years (Beecher (1946) was one of
the pioneers studying placebo effect as an important medical phenomenon), there are still gaps in
the research that need to be filled. Due to the difference of scientific contexts exploring this
phenomenon from a marketing point of view could help reveal new factors that mediate the
placebo effect.
Shiv, Carmon, and Ariely (2005a) conducted a researched aimed at extending the scope
of effects that marketing actions are capable of evoking. They found out that speculation with
different marketing variables (in particular, price promotions) can not only influence the
subjective experience of a customer but even alter the actual efficacy of a product. Placebo effect
in marketing has not been studied through yet and hence there are a lot of directions of research
that could be developed. One of possible directions that I’m going to develop in the given paper
is the influence of brand name on the actual efficacy of products.
3
Theoretical background
According to numerous researches the main two concepts that lie in the basis of placebo
effect are expectancy theory and classical conditioning (e.g., Montgomery & Kirsch, 1997).
Classical conditioning is defined as a particular form of learning when an organism is being
exposed to conditioned and unconditioned stimuli which results in relevant change in organism
state or behavior (Stewart-Williams and Podd, 2004). According to the expectancy theory,
placebo substance produces effect because recipient expects it to have an effect. (StewartWilliams and Podd, 2004). Usually these two theories are treated as competing approaches. For
instance, Kirsch (1991) argues that expectancy theory can explain the process of placebo
response whereas classical conditioning is unable to fully account for placebo effect. On the
other hand, Voudouris et al. (1990) tried to prove that classical conditioning processes are
superior when explaining the framework of placebo effect.
Stewart-Williams and Podd (2005a) suggest that classical conditioning and expectancy
theory shouldn’t be viewed as opposite approaches, but as two theories that support each other
when creating placebo effect. They propose that classical conditioning processes shape placebo
effect and expectancies help to mediate it. Based on this assumption the following framework of
placebo effect is used in the given research. Salient beliefs that (both intrinsic and extrinsic)
activate response expectancies together with expectations related to other factors (e.g. selfefficacy beliefs) produce subjective and behavioral outcomes (Shiv, Carmon, & Ariely, 2005b).
4
Research question
The influence of marketing actions on consumers’ behavior has been discovered long
ago. Numerous studies provide evidence that brand name (Allison & Uhl, 1964), advertisement
claims (Lane, 2000) or other marketing attributes could affect consumers’ perceptions of
products. On the one hand, as already mentioned above, the phenomenon of placebo effect in
medicine is a well-elaborated notion. Nevertheless recently, these two concepts have been
merged relatively and there is not much research regarding the influence of marketing actions
not only on subjective experiences but on physical effectiveness of products to which they are
being applied. Research conducted by Shiv, Carmon, and Ariely (2005a) provided evidence that
advertisement is able to reinforce price-quality attitude which could lead to actual change in
effectiveness of a product.
However there is no profound research that examines the possible influence of a brand
name on objective changes in effectiveness of a product. Thus the significance of the given
thesis derives from the variety of gaps in research of the problem stated above and the necessity
of exploring the new area of connection of psychology and marketing sciences.
To conclude the purpose of this research is to understand the influence of brand image
and brand perception on the effectiveness of a product. Hence, the main hypothesis of the thesis
is:
H1: The level of brand awareness of a product influences the actual effectiveness of this
product.
Moreover, expectations that act as one of the factors triggering the placebo effect and
their influence on the changes in actual efficacy of products is another problem that I am going
to examine in this paper. It is hard to underestimate the role of expectations in governing placebo
effect. Even researches that argued that classical conditioning theory accounts for placebo affect
(e.g., Voudouris et al., 1990) stated that expectancies played a certain role as well. The possible
significance of the development of this problem lies in the practical relevance: expectations of a
customer regarding the effectiveness of a product can be easily stimulated by the marketing
actions. On the one hand, customer could receive the stimuli that encourage expectations
unconsciously (e.g. through well-established brand-name) or consciously (e.g. via advertisement
claims).
5
To sum up, the second goal of the given research is to understand and examine the
influence that expectancies have on the magnitude of placebo effect. Hence the second
hypothesis of this study is the following:
H2: The level of expectations about the effect of the product influences the magnitude of
placebo effect.
6
Literature review
TOPIC
Placebo
effect in
marketing
actions
TITLE
Placebo Effects
of Marketing
Actions:
Consumers May
Get What They
Pay For
Placebo
effect in
marketing
actions
Placebo: From
Pain and
Analgesia to
Preferences and
Products.
Placebo
effect in
marketing
actions
The Quality of
Price as a
Quality Cue
AUTHOR
Shiv, B.,
Carmon, Z.,
& Ariely, D
JOURNAL
Journal of
Marketing
Research, 2005,
XLII (November),
383–393.
Becerra, L.,
& Borsook,
D.
Journal of
Marketing
Research, (2005),
XLII (November),
394–398.
Rao, A. R.
Journal of
Marketing
Research, (2005),
42(4), 401–405.
CONTENT
The authors conducted a series of
experiments to prove the
influence of marketing actions
(in particular, price promotions)
on the actual efficacy of
products. Moreover the research
focuses on the role of
expectations
in
mediating
placebo
effect
(higher
expectancy level lead to greater
placebo effect). One of the main
findings is that non-conscious
expectations about the pricequality relation can influence
consumers
and
encourage
placebo effect.
The authors also revealed a
number of important statements
regarding the placebo effect in
marketing:
- buying product with a discount
produces greater placebo effect
than paying more for a product
-favorable ads can reinforce
negative
price-quality
perceptions
-drawing attention to positive
marketing claims (encouraging
expectations) stimulates the
amplitude of the placebo effect.
Becerra and Borsook develop
the idea presented by Shiv,
Carmon and Ariely (2005) by
linking the effect that price
changes can produce on the
actual efficacy of a product
and the pricing strategies for
medications. An interesting
idea
of
interdependence
between whether the medicine
is generic or branded and the
efficacy of this drug is
suggested. However, no actual
experience is performed.
Rao (2005) comments on the
research of Shiv, Carmon, and
Ariely (2005) and develops
the concept of placebo effect
7
Placebo
effect in
marketing
actions
The Placebo
Effect in
Marketing:
Sometimes You
Just Have to
Want It to Work.
Irmak, C.,
Block, L. G.,
&
Fitzsimons,
G. J.
Journal of
Marketing
Research, (2005),
XLII (November),
406–409.
Placebo
effect in
marketing
action
Price, Placebo,
and the Brain.
Berns, G. S.
Journal of
Marketing
Research, (2005),
XLII (November),
399–400.
Placebo
effect in
medicine
Mechanism of
placebo pain
reduction: An
empirical
Investigation.
Montgomery,
G., & Kirsch,
I.
Psychological
science, (1996).
7(3), 174–176.
Beecher, H.
K.
J.A.M.A., (1955),
159(17), 1602–
1606.
Hróbjartsson,
A., &
Gøtzsche, P.
C.
The New England
journal of
medicine, (2001),
344(21), 1594–
Placebo
effect in
medicine
Placebo
effect in
medicine
The Powerful
Placebo
Is the placebo
powerless? An
analysis of
clinical trials
in marketing by focusing on
the price-quality relationship.
Authors
conducted
an
experiment with energy drink
revealing the importance of
motivation as an important
factor contributing to placebo
effect in marketing.
Berns (2005) provides an
overview of the results
achieved by Shiv, Carmon,
and Ariely (2005) focusing on
the processes in brain that
contribute to placebo effect.
The authors conducted an
experiment with placebo
anesthetic cream in order to
investigate the placebo effect
in pain reduction. The results
suggest that placebo of local
anesthetics are not mediated
by global mechanisms of
placebo
effect.
Global
mechanisms (such as anxiety
reduction and endogenous
opioids) are opposed to the
second group of factors
contributing to placebo effect
–
flexible
mechanism
(classical conditioning and
expectancies).
The author provides evidence
of high degree of therapeutic
effectiveness
of
placebo
(produced in 35.2% of cases)
by investigating 15 studies in
various areas from pain
reduction to simple cold with
over
1000
participants
involved. Beecher (1955)
stresses the importance of
“double blind” technique
(when neither the subject nor
the observer is aware of the
agent that is being used) and
other requirements for a
successful use of placebo in
medical trials.
The article provides an
overview of 130 clinical trials
investigating the effect of
placebo in medicine. The
8
comparing
placebo with no
treatment.
602.
Placebo
effect in
medicine
The importance
of placebo
effects in pain
treatment and
research.
Turner, J. A.,
Deyo, R. A.,
Loeser, J. D.,
Von Korff,
M., &
Fordyce, W.
E.
Placebo
effect in
medicine
Effect of caffeine
on motor
performance
predicts the type
of response to
placebo.
Fillmore, M.,
& VogelSprott, M.
Efficiency
of energy
drinks
The effects of
Red Bull Energy
Drink on human
performance and
mood.
Alford, C.,
Cox, H., &
Wescott, R.
Efficiency
of energy
drinks
A taurine and
caffeinecontaining drink
stimulates
cognitive
performance and
well-being.
Seidl, R.,
Peyrl, A.,
Nicham, R.,
& Hauser, E.
authors conclude that placebo
has no significant effects.
The article provides an
overview of the relevant
literature with an objective to
identify the importance of
placebo
effects
in
the
J..A.M.A., (1994), treatment of pain. The authors
271(20), 1609–
examine placebo effects of
1614.
medical treatments and sham
surgeries.
The
factors
influencing
the
placebo
responses both form the
patient and provider sides are
examined and assessed.
The authors conducted an
experiment to examine the
relationship
between
the
participant’s
expectations
regarding the effect of
Psychopharmacolo
caffeine on a motor skill and
gy, (1992), 106(2),
the type of placebo response.
209–214.
The
results
stress
the
importance of expectancies in
terms of learned association
in the direction of placebo
effect.
The authors conducted three
experiments
with
36
participants in total in order to
test an effectiveness of Red
Amino Acids,
Bull® energy drink. The drink
(2001), 21, 139–
improved aerobic endurance,
150.
anaerobic performance and
such mental performance
indicators as choice reaction
time, memory, concentration.
The authors conducted an
experiment in order to
measure the effectiveness of
three main ingredients of
energy
drinks:
caffeine,
taurine, glucuronolactone. The
Amino Acids,
effectiveness was assessed by
(2000), 19, 635–
measuring motor reaction
642.
time, attention capacity, mood
changes and subjective feeling
of well-being. The results
suggest that energy drinks
containing above mentioned
ingredients have positive
9
Theoretical
background
of placebo
effect
The placebo
effect: dissolving
the expectancy
versus
conditioning
debate.
StewartWilliams, S.,
& Podd, J.
Theoretical
background
of placebo
effect
The placebo
puzzle: putting
together the
pieces.
StewartWilliams, S.
Theoretical
background
of placebo
effect
The role of
conditioning and
verbal
expectancy in the
placebo
response.
Voudouris,
N. J., Peck,
C. L., &
Coleman, C.
Theoretical
background
of placebo
effect
Classical
conditioning and
the placebo
effect.
Montgomery,
G. H., &
Kirsch, I.
Influence of Influence of Beer Allison, R. I.,
Marketing
Brand
& Uhl, K. P.
effect
on
cognitive
performance and mood.
The authors provide an
extensive overview of the
literature
regarding
the
placebo effect. They define
and separate such notions as
placebo,
placebo
effect,
nocebo. The main focus of
Stewart-Williams and Podd
(2005) is to understand which
of two main theories that are
Psychological
believed to contribute to the
bulletin, (2004),
placebo effect – classical
130(2), 324–340.
conditioning and expectancy
theory – is the basis of
placebo processes. The main
conclusion is that one
shouldn’t separate these two
theories when finding the
basis of placebo effect. On the
contrary, the relationship of
two theories gives rise to
placebo effect.
The author gives an overview
of four concepts that are
Health psychology, hypothesized to contribute to
(2004), 23(2),
placebo effect: expectancy
198–206.
theory, emotional change
theory, classical conditioning,
and the biological approach.
The article examines the
contribution
of
classical
conditioning
and
verbal
expectancies for placebo
Pain, (1990), 43, effect. The authors came to
121–128.
the
conclusion
that
conditioning might produce
greater placebo response than
expectancies created by verbal
stimuli.
The authors conduct an
experiment in order to test two
opposing models of the
process of placebo response:
Pain, (1997), 72,
expectancy
theory
and
107–113.
stimulus substitution model.
The author also answers the
question of how conditioning
affects analgesia.
Journal of
The authors conducted an
Marketing
experiment
aimed
at
10
Actions
Identification on
Taste Perception.
Research, (1964),
1(3), 36-39.
Influence of
Marketing
Actions
The DoubleEdged Sword of
Signaling
Effectiveness :
When Salient
Cues Curb
Postpurchase
Consumption.
Zhu, M.,
Billeter, D.
M., & Inman,
J. J.
Journal of
Marketing
Research, (2012),
XLIX(February),
26–38.
Influence of
Marketing
Actions
The Effect of
Price, Brand
Name, and Store
Name on
Buyers’
Perception of
Product Quality:
an Integrative
Review.
Rao, A. R., &
Monroe, K. B.
Journal of
Marketing, (1989),
26(3), 351–357.
identifying the influence of
brand
name
on
taste
perception. The market of
beer has been chosen as an
example. The results suggest
that taste perception arise
primarily with the help of
marketing actions rather than
from
physical
product
differences.
From
a
managerial point of view it
means that physical product
differences had little to do
with the various brands'
relative success or failure in
the market.
The authors examine the
influence of price and brand
name on the customer’s
evaluation of the product
using meta-analysis. The
results suggest that the
dependence
between
price/brand
name
and
perceived quality is positive
and statistically significant.
Authors
investigate
the
influence on highlighting the
effectiveness of a product
using various marketing tools.
On the one hand, it stimulates
initial purchase but might
have a negative post-purchase
experience that would hurt
pong-term sales. However
Rao and Monroe (1989) argue
that this happens only if the
effectiveness cues are salient
in the consumption context
and are removed in the
consumption context.
11
Methodology
Research design
The given research presents a confirmatory study. The hypotheses stated above will be
tested through an experiment using crossover between-subjects design. The questionnaires
designed to measure the brand awareness and expectations level are analyzed using descriptive
statistics techniques.
Selection of participants.
120 participants voluntarily agreed to participate in the experiment. All of them are
students of University of Kassel of different specialization. The average age is 25 years. All
participants are informed that they are contributing to a research about energy drinks and are not
informed in any way regarding the true research purpose of the study so that their expectations
are not affected. Participants are randomly divided into four groups: three treatment groups and
one control group.
Participants were asked to confirm their good health state by admitting not having heart
problems. Female participants were asked to confirm that they are not pregnant. Participants
were asked to abstain from caffeine consumption earlier that day.
Procedure
Each group is tested during four separate sessions during two days in one of the
classrooms at University of Kassel campus. All four groups are asked to consume a beverage and
then to solve a series of puzzles. There are three types of beverages consumed in the experiment:
three treatment groups consume either Red Bull® or another energy drink that has similar
amount of active components but doesn’t have a well-established brand name and the control
group consumes water. The second energy drink is supposed to produce the same effect due to
the similar components. Moreover the taste of two energy drinks is similar so that the
participants could not distinguish between two energy drinks only by tasting them.
The first treatment group consumes Red Bull® from an original bottle. I chose Red
Bull® since it is the leading brand of energy drinks in Germany accounting for 44% of market
share in 2011. (Euromonitor). Thus it has the strongest brand awareness. The second treatment
group consumes another energy drink that is put into a Red Bull® bottle. The third treatment
12
group consumes the second energy drink from an original bottle. Finally, the control group
consumes water.
In order to measure the physical effectiveness of energy drink, all four groups are asked
to solve a series of puzzles that measure mental alertness, concentration, memory and reasoning.
The puzzles include letter cancelation task, a task that involves remembering a number of
numbers and two negotiation tasks adapted to be conducted on one participant only. After
solving the puzzles all three treatment groups are asked to fill in a questionnaire regarding their
feelings after the consumption of the energy drink. The answers will help to evaluate subjective
experience of participants after consuming an energy drink.
Before consuming the beverage the first two treatment groups are asked to fill in a
questionnaire that contains questions regarding the brand awareness and the expectations of
participants for their performance and feelings after consumption of a given energy drink. By
doing this, participants’ expectations are being enhanced. Moreover in order to encourage
expectations, before the consumption of the drink, the first two groups are shown a number of
videos regarding the extreme sports competitions that Red Bull is sponsoring.
Before the main experiment a pre-test is run in order to assess possible pitfalls and
limitations. Pre-test presents the same experiment design and procedures with reduced number of
participants.
13
Overview of Chapters
Topic: Placebo effect in marketing: unexplored influence of brand name.
Title page
Abstract
Table of contents
List of figures
List of tables
List of abbreviations
1. Introduction to the research
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Problem statement
1.3 Research question
2. Theoretical background of placebo
2.1. Classical conditioning and its contribution to placebo process
2.2.Exectancy theory in shaping placebo effect
2.3.Other theories contributiong to placebo effect
2.4.Possible models of placebo effect process
3. Placebo effect in marketing
3.1. Overview of the previous research conducted in the given area
3.2. Various marketing actions and its effect on product perception and efficacy
4. Influence of brand name on consumer’s perception of a product
4.1. Marketing theories of brand perception
4.2. The influence of brand name on various product
5. Experiment
5.1. Experimental design
5.2. Experimental procedure
5.3. Results
5.4. Discussion
6. Conclusion
6.1 Conclusion
6.2 Managerial implication
6.3 Limitations and future research
14
Bibliography
Appendices
15
Schedule
May 2012 – 3 Sep 2012
Developing topic proposals
3 Sep 2012 - DEADLINE FOR SENDING TOPIC PROPOSAL
3 Sep 2012 – 17 Sep 2012
Time lag
17 Sep 2012 – 21 Sep 2012
Choosing the topic
21 Sep 2012 – 17 Oct 2012
Reading related literature
17 Oct 2012 – 31 Oct 2012
Writing expose
31 Oct 2012 – DEADLINE FOR SUBMITTING THE EXPOSE
31 Oct 2012 – 11 Nov 2012
Time lag for improving the expose
11 Nov 2012 – 1 Dec 2012
Writing the draft of theoretical
background
1 Dec 2012 – 11 Dec 2012
Preparing for the experiment
11- 13 Dec 2012
Conducting the experiment
13 Dec 2012 – 16 Dec 2012
Analyzing the results of the experiment
16 Dec 2012 – 18 Dec 2012
Preparing a draft of intermediate report
18 Dec 2012 – 20 Dec 2012
Time lag for finishing up the draft of
intermediate report
20 Dec 2012 – DEADLINE FOR SUBMITTING THE DRAFT OF INTERMEDIATE
REPORT
20 Dec 2012 – 8 Jan 2012
Writing Chapters 1-4
8 Jan 2012
Feedback on the draft of intermediate
report
8 Jan 2013 – 18 Jan 2013
Improving the intermediate report +
finishing up the draft of chapters
(1+2+3+4)
18 Jan 2013– 22 Jan 2013
Time lag + making of Intermediate
presentation
22 Jan 2013 –DEADLINE FOR SUBMITTING INTERMEDIATE REPORT
23,24,25 Jan 2013
Intermediate presentations
25 Jan 2013- 18 Feb 2013
Analyzing
the
results
of
the
experiment/Writing Chapter 5
18 Feb 2013 – 18 Mar 2013
Writing Conclusion
18 Mar 2103 – 8 Apr 2013
Finishing up the thesis
8 Apr 2013 – 6 May 2013
Time lag
6 May 2013 – 13 May 2013
Proofreading
13 May 2013 – 27 May 2013
Working on the final presentation of the
thesis
27 May 2013 – 31 May 2013
Final presentations
16
Bibliography
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performance and mood. Amino Acids, 21, 139–150.
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Journal of Marketing Research, 1(3), 36–39. doi:10.2307/3150054
Becerra, L., & Borsook, D. (2005). Plaœbo : From Pain and Analgesia to Preferenœs and
Products. Journal of Marketing Research, XLII(November), 394–398.
Beecher, H. K. L. C. (1946). Pain in men wounded in battle. Annals of surgery, 123(1), 96–105.
Beecher, H. K. (1955). The Powerful Placebo. J.A.M.A., 159(17), 1602–1606.
Berns, G. S. (2005). Price, Placebo, and the Brain. Journal of Marketing Research,
XLII(November), 399–400.
Fillmore, M., & Vogel-Sprott, M. (1992). Effect of caffeine on motor performance predicts the
type of response to placebo *. Psychopharmacology, 106(2), 209–214.
Hróbjartsson, A., & Gøtzsche, P. C. (2001). Is the placebo powerless? An analysis of clinical
trials comparing placebo with no treatment. The New England journal of medicine, 344(21),
1594–602. doi:10.1056/NEJM200105243442106
Irmak, C., Block, L. G., & Fitzsimons, G. J. (2005). The Placebo Effect in Marketing :
Sometimes You Just Have to Want It to Work. Journal of Marketing Research,
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Lane, V. R. (2000). The Impact of Ad Repetition and Ad Content on Consumer Perceptions of
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Investigation. Psychological science, 7(3), 174–176.
Montgomery, G. H., & Kirsch, I. (1997). Classical conditioning and the placebo effect. Pain,
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401–405.
Rao, A. R., & Monroe, K. B. (1989). The Effect of Price, Brand Name, and Store Name on
Buyers’ Perception of Product Quality: an Integrative Review. Journal of Marketing, 26(3),
351–357.
Seidl, R., Peyrl, A., Nicham, R., & Hauser, E. (2000). A taurine and caffeine-containing drink
stimulates cognitive performance and well-being. Amino Acids, 19, 635–642.
17
Shiv, B., Carmon, Z., & Ariely, D. (2005). Placebo Effects of Marketing Actions : Consumers
May Get What They Pay For. Journal of Marketing Research, XLII(November), 383–393.
Shiv, B., Carmon, Z., & Ariely, D. (2005). Ruminating About Placebo Effects of Marketing
Actions. Journal of Marketing Research, 42(4), 410–414.
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Stewart-Williams, S., & Podd, J. (2004). The placebo effect: dissolving the expectancy versus
conditioning debate. Psychological bulletin, 130(2), 324–340. doi:10.1037/00332909.130.2.324
Turner, J. A., Deyo, R. A., Loeser, J. D., Von Korff, M., & Fordyce, W. E. (1994). The
importance of placebo effects in pain treatment and research. J.A.M.A., 271(20), 1609–
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Rao, A. R., & Monroe, K. B. (1989). The Effect of Price, Brand Name, and Store Name on
Buyers’ Perception of Product Quality: an Integrative Review. Journal of Marketing, 26(3),
351–357.
Voudouris, N. J., Peck, C. L., & Coleman, C. (1990). The role of conditioning and verbal
expectancy in the placebo response. Pain, 43, 121–128.
Zhu, M., Billeter, D. M., & Inman, J. J. (2012). The Double-Edged Sword of Signaling
Effectiveness : When Salient Cues Curb Postpurchase Consumption. Journal of Marketing
Research, XLIX(February), 26–38.
18