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UNIT II Research Methods: Thinking Critically with Psychological Science The Need for Psychological Science Hindsight Bias-the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon) Overconfidence- believing we know more than we do Critical Thinking-thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, assesses the source, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions Scientific Method Theory- an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events Hypothesis- a testable prediction Operational Definition- a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study, includes the definition and how it is measured Replication- repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances Description Case Study-a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles Naturalistic Observation-observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation Survey-a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group Population-all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn Random Sample-a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion UNIT II Research Methods: Thinking Critically with Psychological Science Correlation Correlation-a measure of the extent to which two variables change together, and thus of how well either variable predicts the other Correlation Coefficient- a statistical index of the relationship between two variables (between -1 and 1) Illusory Correlation-the perception of a relationship where none exists Correlation does not equal causation Experiment Experiment-a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process. Experimental group-in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable Control group-in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment Random Assignment-assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups Blinding- The participants are ignorant about whether they have received a treatment or a placebo. Double Blinding- Both for researchers and participants are ignorant about whether the participants have received a treatment or a placebo. Placebo Effect- experimental results caused by expectations alone Independent Variable- The experimental factor that is manipulated, the variable whose effect is being studied. Dependent Variable- The outcome factor, the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the IV UNIT II Research Methods: Thinking Critically with Psychological Science Descriptive Statistics Descriptive Statistics- numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups Mean- The arithmetic average of a distribution. Median- The middle score. Mode- The most frequently occurring score in a distribution. Range- The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution. Standard Deviation- A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score. Normal Curve- a symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of data (68, 95, 99.7) Inferential Statistics Inferential Statistics- numerical data that allows one to generalize, to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population Statistical Significance- A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance. P value ≤ 0.05 Ethics Informed Consent- telling the participants what the study/experiment is about before they become involved Debriefing- telling the participants the results of the study/experiments after they have completed it Confidentiality- protecting the privacy of those involved in the study/experiment