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Life in the Neolithic
The Neolithic Age, Era, or Period, or New Stone Age, was a period in the development of human
technology, beginning about 9500 BC in the Middle East that is traditionally considered the last part of
the Stone Age. The Neolithic followed the terminal Holocene Epipalaeolithic period, beginning with the
rise of farming, which produced the "Neolithic Revolution" and ending when metal tools became
widespread in the Copper Age (chalcolithic) or Bronze Age or developing directly into the Iron Age,
depending on geographical region. The Neolithic is not a specific chronological period, but rather a
suite of behavioural and cultural characteristics, including the use of wild and domestic crops and the
use of domesticated animals.
New findings put the beginning of the Neolithic culture back to around 10,700 to 9400 BC in Tell
Qaramel in northern Syria, 25 km north of Aleppo. Until those findings are adopted within the
archaeological community, the beginning of the Neolithic culture is considered to be in the Levant
(Jericho, modern-day West Bank) about 9500 BC. It developed directly from the Epipaleolithic Natufian
culture in the region, whose people pioneered the use of wild cereals, which then evolved into true
farming. The Natufians can thus be called "proto-Neolithic" (12,500–9500 BC or 12,000–9500 BC). As
the Natufians had become dependent on wild cereals in their diet, and a sedentary way of life had
begun among them, the climatic changes associated with the Younger Dryas are thought to have forced
people to develop farming. By 9500–9000 BC, farming communities arose in the Levant and spread to
Asia Minor, North Africa and North Mesopotamia. Early Neolithic farming was limited to a narrow range
of plants, both wild and domesticated, which included einkorn wheat, millet and spelt, and the keeping
of dogs, sheep and goats. By about 8000 BC, it included domesticated cattle and pigs, the
establishment of permanently or seasonally inhabited settlements, and the use of pottery.
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Not all of these cultural elements characteristic of the Neolithic appeared everywhere in the same order:
the earliest farming societies in the Near East did not use pottery, and, in Britain, it remains unclear to
what extent plants were domesticated in the earliest Neolithic, or even whether permanently settled
communities existed. In other parts of the world, such as Africa, South Asia and South-east Asia,
independent domestication events led to their own regionally-distinctive Neolithic cultures that arose
completely independent of those in Europe and South-west Asia. Early Japanese societies used pottery
before developing agriculture.
Skara Brae
Skara Brae is a large stonebuilt Neolithic settlement,
located on the Bay of Skaill
on the west coast of
Mainland, Orkney, Scotland.
It consists of ten clustered
houses, and was occupied
from roughly 3180 BC–2500
BC. It is Europe's most
complete Neolithic village
and because of its age
(older than Stonehenge or
the Great Pyramids) and the
high level of preservation, it
has gained UNESCO World
Heritage Site status, and
has been called the
"Scottish Pompeii".
Discovery and early
exploration
In the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Britain causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In
the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, known in Scottish as a howe,
which had been a local landmark. When the storm cleared local villagers found in place of the howe an
intact village, albeit without roofs. For about the next 75 years there were no serious scientific
investigations of Skara Brae. In one weekend in 1913, the site was plundered by a party with shovels
taking away an unknown quantity of artefacts. In 1924 another storm swept away part of the one of the
houses and it was determined the site should be made secure and more seriously investigated. The job
was given to University of Edinburgh professor Vere Gordon Childe. In mid-1927 Childe travelled to
Skara Brae for the first time.
Neolithic lifestyle
Skara Brae's inhabitants were apparently makers and users of grooved ware, a distinctive style of
pottery that appeared in northern Scotland not long before the establishment of the village. The houses
used earth sheltering but, being sunk into the ground, they were built into mounds of pre-existing
domestic waste known as "middens". Although the midden provided the houses with a small degree of
stability, its most important purpose was to act as a layer of insulation against Orkney's harsh winter
climate. On average, the houses measure 40 square metres (430 sq ft) in size with a large square room
containing a hearth which would have been used for heating and cooking. Given the number of homes,
it seems likely that no more than fifty people lived in Skara Brae at any given time.
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Excavated dwellings at Skara Brae
It is by no means clear what fuels the inhabitants used in the stone hearths. Vere Gordon Childe was
sure that the fuel was peat, but a detailed analysis of vegetation patterns and trends suggests that
climatic conditions conducive to the development of thick beds of peat did not develop in this part of
Orkney until after Skara Brae was abandoned. Other obvious possible fuel sources include driftwood
and animal dung, but there's evidence that dried seaweed may have been a significant source. At a
number of sites in Orkney investigators have found a glassy, slag-like material called "cramp" that may
be the residue of burnt seaweed.
The dwellings contain a number of
stone-built pieces of furniture,
including cupboards, dressers,
seats, and storage boxes. Each
dwelling was entered through a low
doorway that had a stone slab door
that could be closed "by a bar that
slid in bar-holes cut in the stone
door jambs". A sophisticated
drainage system was even
incorporated into the village's
design, one that included a
primitive form of toilet in each
dwelling. Seven of the houses
have similar furniture, with the
beds and dresser in the same
places in each house. The dresser
stands against the wall opposite
the door, and would have been the
first thing seen by anyone entering
the dwelling. Each of these houses
has the larger bed on the right side of the doorway and the smaller on the left. Lloyd Laing noted that
this pattern accorded with Hebridean custom up to the early 20th century suggesting that the husband's
bed was the larger and the wife's was the smaller. The discovery of beads and paint-pots in some of the
smaller beds may support this interpretation. Additional support may come from the recognition that
stone boxes lie to the left of most doorways, forcing the person entering the house to turn to the righthand, 'male', side of the dwelling. At the front of each bed lie the stumps of stone pillars that may have
supported a canopy of fur; another link with recent Hebridean style.
Evidence of home furnishings
The eighth house has no storage boxes or dresser, but has been divided into something resembling
small cubicles. When this house was excavated, fragments of stone, bone and antler were found. It is
possible that this building was used as a house to make simple tools such as bone needles or flint
axes. The presence of heat-damaged volcanic rocks and what appears to be a flue, support this
interpretation. House 8 is distinctive in other ways as well. It is a stand-alone structure not surrounded
by midden, instead there is a "porch" protecting the entrance through walls that are over 2 metres (6.6
ft) thick. The site provided the earliest known record of the human flea Pulex irritans in Europe.
The Grooved Ware People who built Skara Brae were primarily pastoralists who raised cattle and
sheep. Childe originally believed that the inhabitants did not practice agriculture, but excavations in
1972 unearthed seed grains from a midden suggesting that barley was cultivated. Fish bones and
shells are common in the middens indicating that dwellers supplemented their diet with seafood. Limpet
shells are common and may have been fish-bait that was kept in stone boxes in the homes. The boxes
were formed from thin slabs with joints carefully sealed with clay to render them waterproof.
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This pastoral lifestyle is in sharp contrast to some of the more exotic interpretations of the culture of the
Skara Brae people. Euan MacKie suggested that Skara Brae might be the home of a privileged
theocratic class of wise men who engaged in astronomical and magical ceremonies at nearby sites like
the Ring of Brodgar and the Standing Stones of Stenness. Graham and Anna Ritchie cast doubt on this
interpretation noting that there is no archaeological evidence for this claim, although a Neolithic "low
road" connects Skara Brae with the magnificent chambered tomb of Maeshowe, passing near both of
these sites. Low roads connect Neolithic ceremonial sites throughout Britain.
Dating and abandonment
Originally, Childe believed that the settlement dated from around 500 BC. This interpretation was
coming under increasing challenge by the time new excavations in 1972–73 settled the question.
Radiocarbon results obtained from samples collected during these excavations indicates that
occupation of Skara Brae began about 3180 BC with occupation continuing for about six hundred
years. Around 2500 BC, after the climate changed, becoming much colder and wetter, the settlement
may have been abandoned by its inhabitants. There are many theories as to why the people of Skara
Brae left, particularly popular interpretations involve a major storm. Evan Hadingham combined
evidence from found objects with the storm scenario to imagine a dramatic end to the settlement:
As was the case at Pompeii, the inhabitants seem to have been taken by surprise and fled in haste, for
many of their prized possessions, such as necklaces made from animal teeth and bone, or pins of
walrus ivory, were left behind. The remains of choice meat joints were discovered in some of the beds,
presumably forming part of the villagers' last supper. One woman was in such haste that her necklace
broke as she squeezed through the narrow doorway of her home, scattering a stream of beads along
the passageway outside as she fled the encroaching sand.
Anna Ritchie strongly disagrees with catastrophic interpretations of the village's abandonment:
A popular myth would have the village abandoned during a massive storm that threatened to bury it
in sand instantly, but the truth is that its burial was gradual and that it had already been abandoned —
for what reason, no one can tell.
The original site was further from the sea than it is today, and it is possible that Skara Brae was built
adjacent to a freshwater lagoon protected by dunes. Although the visible buildings give an impression of
an organic whole, it is certain that an unknown quantity of additional structures had already been lost to
sea erosion before the site's rediscovery and subsequent protection by a seawall. Uncovered remains
are known to exist immediately adjacent to the ancient monument, in areas presently covered by fields,
and others, of uncertain date, can be seen eroding out of the cliff edge a little to the south of the
enclosed area.
Artefacts
A number of enigmatic Carved Stone Balls have been found at the site and some are on display in the
museum. Similar objects have been found throughout northern Scotland. The spiral ornamentation on
some of these "balls" has been stylistically linked to objects found in the Boyne Valley in Ireland. Similar
symbols have been found carved into stone lintels and bed posts. These symbols, sometimes referred
to as "runic writings", have been subjected to controversial translations. For example, Castleden
suggested that "colons" found punctuating vertical and diagonal symbols may represent separations
between words.
Lumps of red ochre found here and at other Neolithic sites have been interpreted as evidence that body
painting may have been practised Nodules of haematite with highly polished surfaces have been found
as well; the shiny surfaces suggest that the nodules were used to finish leather.
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Other artefacts excavated on site made of animal,
fish, bird, and whalebone, whale and walrus ivory,
and killer whale teeth included awls, needles,
knives, beads, adzes, shovels, small bowls and,
most remarkably, ivory pins up to 10 inches (25
cm) long. These pins are very similar to examples
found in passage graves in the Boyne Valley,
another piece of evidence suggesting a linkage
between the two cultures. So-called Skaill knives
were commonly used tools in Skara Brae; these
consist of large flakes knocked off sandstone
cobbles. Skaill knives are found throughout
Orkney and Shetland.
The 1972 excavations reached layers that had
remained waterlogged and had preserved items
that otherwise would have been destroyed. These
include a twisted skein of heather, one of a very
few known examples of Neolithic rope and a
wooden handle.
Daily life in Skara Brae
There is no doubt that life in Skara Brae must have been that of a tightly-knit community. The houses
followed a standard plan, with the furniture laid out in a uniform manner — something which may have
been symbolically important to the villagers. The architectural similarity between their houses — the
houses of the living — and the chambered cairns – the houses of the dead — perhaps linked past
generations with the present.
It has long been suggested that the standardised house design was a sign that no one person was
more important than another. With no architectural evidence that any one structure was grander, or
more elaborate, it was suggested that, as in a commune, all the villagers were equal. This idea was first
proposed by the site excavator, V. Gordon Childe, but may actually reflect the excavator's own
communist leanings.
Childe's interpretation led to the idea that Skara Brae was not a settlement where one family, or
individual, held power over the others. Any community leader, or leaders, would have "earned" their
position, perhaps through experience, and this status would not necessarily pass on to any offspring.
However, it could also be argued that there was more practical reason for the identical layout of the
houses.
In more recent times, the typical Orcadian croft, for example, followed a fairly standard design, right
through to the 19th century. In this case, there’s no suggestion of an egalitarian society of crofters.
Instead, we know the buildings followed a tried and tested design — a plan known to the builders for
generations and one which, through experience, was reasonably easy to build. Moving away from the
social theories, life in Skara Brae was probably quite comfortable by Neolithic standards.
Although contact with other communities could have seen trading of certain commodities, clay or
pottery, for example, the villagers were settled farmers and probably fairly self-sufficient. Bones found in
the midden, surrounding the houses, shows that cattle and sheep formed the main part of the Skara
Brae diet, with barley and wheat grown in the surrounding fields.
Complementing the farming produce, fish and shellfish were harvested in great quantities — and
perhaps kept fresh within custom-built tanks within the houses. Fish were shore caught — mostly cod
and saithe — while the wide range of shellfish reflects those that formed a staple part of the Orcadian
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diet until the 20th century. Huge quantities of limpet shells were found, but these may not have been a
staple part of the Skara Brae diet. Through the centuries, limpets were generally regarded as an
“emergency” food in Orkney, used only when there was nothing else available. Instead, they were
harvested for bait, something that probably explains the quantities found in Skara Brae. The tanks
within the houses could have been used to soak the limpets, softening them up before being used.
The island's red deer and boar were also hunted for their meat and skins. Seal meat was consumed
and, on the occasions when they found a beached whale, its meat would have provided a welcome
feast. In addition, they, like the generations of islanders that followed them, probably collected the eggs
of sea birds as well as harvesting the birds themselves.
As well as providing meat, the animals, hunted and farmed, provided the skin and bone that was the
raw material for the tools and needed for everyday life – needles, shovels, pins, knives, picks and
adzes. The flint, or chert, required for their cutting edges, was either “imported” or gathered from the
shore. Many of the bone tools found suggests that animal skin was the main material for clothing. No
evidence was found for equipment or tools that could have been used in the manufacture of textiles.
Because they were windowless (the window we can see in House One is not original – the seaward
wall was reconstructed in the 19th century ), the interior of a Skara Brae house would have been dark,
and probably smoky. Aside from the fire, in the centre of each room, the only light came, presumably,
from a smoke hole in the roof. Possibly hanging from the rafters were fish, curing in the fire’s smoke.
For fuel, the villagers probably burned a combination of seaweed and dried animal dung – fuels that
remained in use until the 19th century - possibly along with the poor quality peat available to the
villagers. Whether they burned driftwood is open to debate. In more recent years, driftwood was
generally regarded as too valuable to burn.
Historical Periods
Western Europe
Palaeolithic (pre c. 8800 BC)
Mesolithic (c. 8800 – 4900 BC)
Neolithic (c. 4900 – 2000 BC)
Bronze Age (c. 2000 – 800 BC)
Iron Age (c. 800 – 1 BC)
Roman (c. AD 1 – 400)
Early medieval period (c. AD 400 – 800)
Medieval period (800 – c. 1500)
Post-medieval period (c. 1500 – c. 1800)
Industrial/Modern (c.1800 - )
Ancient history
o Mesopotamia (3500 BC - 559 BC)
o Indus Valley Civilization (3300 BC - 1300 BC)
o Old Kingdom (Egypt, 3000 BC - 2000 BC)
o Middle Kingdom (Egypt, 2000 BC - 1300 BC)
o Shang Dynasty (China 1600 BC - 1046 BC)
o Vedic period (India 1500 BC - 500 BC)
o New Kingdom (Egypt, 1550 BC - 1070 BC)
o Zhou Dynasty (China 1200 BC - 500 BC)
o Ancient Greece (Greece and Near East, c. 3300 BC- 31 BC (However, this area had
settlements as far back as 9000 BC)
o Jomon period (Japan 800 BC-400 BC)
o Ancient Rome (509 BC-AD 476)
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o Yayoi period (Japan 400 BC — AD 300)
o Kofun period (Japan 300 - 600)
o Migration period (Europe 200 - 700)
o Coptic period (Egypt 300 - 900)
* Middle Ages (Europe, 4th century - 15th century)
o Early Middle Ages European (AD 500–1000)
+ Dark Age (Europe, 4th century - 900)
+ Viking Age (Scandinavia, Europe, 793–1066)
o Asuka period, Nara period, Heian period, Kamakura period, Muromachi period, and AzuchiMomoyama period (Japan, 538 - 1603)
o Southern and Northern Dynasties, Sui Dynasty, Tang Dynasty, Period of Five Dynasties and
Ten Kingdoms (China, 420 - 960), Liao Dynasty, Song Dynasty, Jin Dynasty (1115–1234),
Western Xia Dynasty, Yuan Dynasty, and Ming Dynasty (China, 220 - 1644)
o Classic and Postclassic eras, Central America (200 - 1519)
o Gupta Empire, Pala Empire, Rashtrakuta, Hoysala Empire, and Kakatiya Empire (India, 280 –
1323)
o Islamic Golden Age (Islam, 700 - 1300)
o High Middle Ages (Feudalism) European military expansion (1000–1450)
o Srivijaya (Indonesia, 3rd century to 14th century), Tarumanagara (358-723), Sailendra (8th &
9th centuries), Kingdom of Sunda (669-1579), Kingdom of Mataram (752–1045), Kediri (1045–
1221), Singhasari (1222–1292), Majapahit (1293–1500)
o Chenla (Cambodia, 630-802) and Khmer Empire (Cambodia, 802–1432)
o Anterior Lý Dynasty and Triệu Việt Vương, Third Chinese domination, Khúc Family, D ương
Đình Nghệ, Kiều Công Tiễn, Ngô Dynasty, The 12 Lords Rebellion, Đinh Dynasty, Prior Lê
Dynasty, Lý Dynasty, Trần Dynasty, Hồ Dynasty, Fourth Chinese domination (Vietnam, 544 1427)
o Early Intermediate, Middle Horizon, Late Intermediate, Late Horizon (Peru, 200 - 1534)
+ Huari, Chimú, Chincha, Chanka Confederation, Tiwanaku, Inca
o Late Middle Ages European (1300–1500)
+ The Renaissance (Europe, 14th century - 16th century)
* Early modern period (Europe, 16th century - 18th century)
o Age of Discovery (or Exploration) (Europe, 15th century - 17th century)
o Elizabethan period (United Kingdom, 1558 - 1603)
o The Protestant Reformation (Europe, 16th century)
o Jacobean Era (United Kingdom, 1603-1625)
o The Age of Enlightenment (or Reason) (Europe,18th century)
o Tokugawa shogunate (Japan, 1603 - 1868)
o Mughal Empire (India, 1526 - 1857)
o Ottoman Empire (Islam, 1299–1923)
o Qing dynasty (China, 1644 - 1912)
o Spanish hegemony (Americas, 16th century - 1820s; Europe, 16th and 17th century,
Philippines, 1525 - 1898)
* Modern era (Europe, 18th century - 20th century)
o Petrine Era (Russia, 1689 - 1725)
o Industrial Revolution (Europe, United States, elsewhere 18th and 19th centuries)
o (along with early modern era) Age of European colonialism and imperialism
o Napoleonic Era (1799 - 1815)
o Georgian Era (United Kingdom, 1714 - 1830)
o Victorian era (United Kingdom, 1837 - 1901); British hegemony, much of world, around the
same time period.
o Romantic Era (1850 - 1920)
o Gilded Age (United States, late 19th century)
o Edwardian period (United Kingdom, 1901 - 1910)
o Meiji period (Japan, 1868 - 1912)
o Progressive era (United States, from the 1880s to the 1920s)
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o Machine Age (1900 - 1945)
o Age of Oil (after 1901)
o World War I (Much of Earth, 1914 - 1918)
o Inter-war period (Earth, 1918 - 1939 or 1937)
o The Great Depression (Earth, 1929-WW2)
o World War II (Earth, 1937 or 1939 - 1945)
o Atomic Age (after 1945)
o Post-war era (1946-1962)
o The Sixties (1960-1969)
o Cold War (Soviet Union and United States, and their allies, 1945 - 1989 or 1991)
o Space Age (after 1957)
o Post-Modern (Soviet Union and United States, 1973 - Present)
o Information Age (1970 - circa 2015)
o The Seventies (1970-1979)
o The Eighties (1980-1989)
o The Nineties (1990-1999)
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