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Thinking About Psychology:
The Science of Mind and
Behavior 2e
Charles T. Blair-Broeker
Randal M. Ernst, borrowed happily
Consciousness Chapter
Sleep, Dreams, and
Body Rhythms
Consciousness
• Awareness of yourself and your
environment.
Consciousness: Personal Awareness
• Awareness of Internal and External Stimuli
– Levels of awareness
• William James & stream of consciousness (endless
flow of ideas), one stream of conscious mental activity
seems to blend into another, effortlessly and seamlessly.
Despite the changing focus of our awareness, our
experience of consciousness as unbroken helps provide
us with a sense of personal identity that has continuity
from one day to the next.
• Freud & the unconscious – submerged thoughts,
feelings, wishes and drives. He believed the interpretation
of dreams is the royal road to knowledge of unconscious
activities. First to recognize different levels of awareness.
Biological and Environmental “Clocks” Regulate
Consciousness
• You probably notice that your level of
consciousness varies through out the day.
Two big examples:
– Mental alertness
– Sleep/wake cycle
• Daily cycles are called circadian rhythms.
(combination of two Latin words for about and day)
• Over 100, many are closely syncronized
Circadian Rhythms
• Biological rhythms that occur
approximately every 24 hours
• Example: Sleep-wake cycle,
temperature, release of
growth hormone, urine
production, strength, peak
senses, sensitivity to pain,
Peak allergic sensitivity…
See table 4.1
• Suprachiasmatic Nucleus – cluster of
neurons in the hypothalamus, the master
biological clock that controls the circadian
rhythm.
• Keeping circadian rhythms requires
environmental cues.
• Light levels  retina  suprachiasmatic
nucleus of hypothalamus  pineal gland 
secretion of melatonin
• Melatonin makes you feel sleepy and peaks
between 1am and 3am (temp the lowest).
Bright light decreases production.
– In the absence of light our bodies drift to our
intrinsic rhythm, which is about 25 hours, and
our normal circadian rhythms become
desynchronized. (cave example)
• Normally for the sleep-wake cycle body temperature,
and melatonin cycles are closely related.
– Jet lag interferes with thinking, concentration, and memory.
On top of physical and mental fatigue, depression and
irritability occur. It can take a full week to adjust!
– Blind people
Hypothalamus & the SCN
• Sleep control center in the brain
• Monitors changes in light or dark in the
environment
• Changes levels of hormones in the body
Sleep and Circadian Rhythms
• Play “Sleep and Circadian Rhythms”
(6:09) Module #13 from The Brain:
Teaching Modules (2nd edition).
Ultradian Rhythms
• Biological rhythms that occur more than
once each day.
– Sleep cycles
– Concentration cycles, some say the human mind
can focus and concentrate for 90 to 120 minutes at
a time and work with sustained energy after which
our attention span decreases and we need to take a
break for at least 15 -20 minutes before we can
focus once again.
Infradian Rhythms
• Biological rhythms that occur once a
month or once a season (animals –
hybernation)
• Example: Women’s menstrual cycle
Sleep and Sleep
Deficit
Why We Sleep
Reasons for Sleep
• Two primary reasons:
– Adaptive Theory: keep us protected from the
dangers of the night, aka Evolutionary Theory
– Restorative Theory: recuperate from the wear and
tear of the day, NREM restores the body and REM
restores the mind
• Adenosine, inhibitory neurotransmitter, believed to play
a role in promoting sleep and suppressing arousal, with
levels increasing with each hour an organism is awake.
• During the day GABA communicates excitatory
messages at night GABA communicates inhibitory
messages. Interesting that GABA is usually inhibitory.
http://science.howstuffworks.com/caffeine3.htm
Sleep Deprivation Effects
• Decreases efficiency of immune system
functioning
• Safety and accident issues
• Contributes to hypertension, impaired
concentration, irritability, etc.
• “The Sleep-Deprived Emotional Brain”
fMRI scans show the amygdala reacting
60% more strongly.
Major accidents caused by sleep
deprivation..
• 1979 Three Mile Island, PA– accidental
melting of the core of nuclear reactor, no
deaths, effects are still debated
• 1986Chernobyl, Ukraine (USSR) – nuclear
explosion.. 31 deaths…
• 1989 Exxon Valdez – oil spill in Alaska
• http://healthysleep.med.harvard.edu/healthy/matters/
consequences/sleep-performance-and-public-safety
• http://library.thinkquest.org/25553/english/difficult/soci
ety/accidents.shtml
Sleep Deprivation
• Complete deprivation
– 3 or 4 days max
• Partial deprivation or sleep
restriction (one night’s sleep, or
continued reduction of sleep)
– impaired attention, reaction time,
coordination, and decision making
– accidents: Chernobyl, Exxon Valdez
• Selective deprivation
– REM: rebound effect
Sleep Deprivation
Figure 5.9 Effect of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance
Sleep Deprivation as
punishment
http://www.time.com/time/nation/a
rticle/0,8599,1892897,00.html
Random Sleep Facts
• http://facts.randomhistory.com/facts-aboutsleep.html
Sleep/Waking Research
• Instruments:
– Electroencephalograph – brain electrical
activity
– Electromyography – muscle activity
– Electrooculograph – eye movements
– Other bodily functions also observed
Electroencephalograph (EEG)
• Machine that
amplifies and
records waves of
electrical activity
that sweep across
the brain’s surface
• Electrodes placed on
the scalp measure
the waves
The Electroencephalograph:
A Physiological Index of Consciousness
• EEG – monitoring of brain electrical
activity
• Brain-waves
– Amplitude (height)
– Frequency (cycles per second)
•
•
•
•
Beta (13-24 cps)
Alpha (8-12 cps)
Theta (4-7 cps)
Delta (<4 cps)
Table 5.1 EEG Patterns Associated with States of Consciousness
Sleep Stages, REM,
and Dreaming:
The Stages of Sleep
• REM (rapid eye movement) – active sleep,
heightened body and brain activity with
dreaming
• NREM – quiet sleep, body’s physiological
functions and brain activity slow down (4
stages)
1. NREM sleep immediately, and you
progress through 4 NREM sleep stages.
– Brain and body activity decreasing with each
2.REM sleep (increased activity and
dreaming)
• Total cycle about 90 minutes
Stage 1 Sleep
• Breathing is slowed.
• Brain waves become irregular.
• It is easy to wake the person, who
will insist they are not asleep.
• Rarely lasts longer than 5 minutes
• alpha & theta brain waves
• Hypnagogic jerks can happen
• Imaging, but not true dreams
Stage 1
Stages of Sleep
Stage 1
Stage 2 Sleep
• Brain wave cycle slows.
• First time through stage 2 last about 20
minutes.
• Onset of true sleep.
• Sleep spindles (brief bursts)
• K complexes (sudden spikes)
• Rhythmical breathing
• Small muscle twitches
Stage 2
Stages 3 and 4 Sleep
• Slow wave sleep
• When delta brain waves makes up more than 20% of
activity, stage 3. When more than 50%, stage 4.
– During the 20-40 minutes spent in the night’s first
episode delta waves will make come to make up 100%
– Heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing drop to their
lowest
– Hard to wake, typically when sleep walking occurs
• First time through stage 4 is about 30 minutes and is
where one gets rejuvenated.
• Can take 15 min to gain full waking consciousness
Stage 3
Stage 4
Figure 5.5 An overview of the cycle of sleep
Sleep
• Play “Sleep: Brain Functions” (11:12)
Module #14 from The Brain: Teaching
Modules (2nd edition).
REM Sleep
• Rapid eye movement (REM Sleep) as
eyes move quickly back and forth
• Vivid dreaming occurs in REM sleep
• The first REM tends to be brief,
increasing in each cycle
REM Sleep
Paradoxical Sleep
• During REM sleep brain wave patterns
are similar to when a person is awake
• Pulse and breathing quickens.
• REM sleep is sometimes called
paradoxical sleep as one’s physiology is
close to that of being awake but the
brainstem blocks all muscle movement
REM Sleep
• Play “REM Sleep and Dreams” (8:23)
Module #15 from The Brain: Teaching
Modules (2nd edition).
Typical Night’s Sleep
Stage 4/REM Changes
Sleep Changes through Life
Dreams
• By adulthood you dream about 2 hours per night,
you’ll devote more than 50,000 hours or six years of
your life to dreaming!!
• Sleep thinking v dreaming
• 4-5 dreaming episodes each night
• Usually the main character with at least one other
person, sometimes the observer
• 1st REM 10 minutes, avg 30 min per cycle, last cycle
can be 40 minutes
• Read “The Dreaming Brain: Turning REM On and Off”
– REM-off neurons produce norepinephrine and serotonin which suppress
REM. REM-on neurons produce acetylcholine which promote REM.
REM and Memory
• Primary visual cortex and frontal cortex are pretty
much shut down
• The amygdala and the hippocampus are activated
• REM sleep helps consolidate memories, especially
procedural memories.
– Studies have shown that REM sleep increases after learning
a task and that deprivation of REM sleep following training
disrupts learning. REM sleep may help stabilize neural
connections acquired through recent experience.
What do we dream about?
• Calvin Hall analyzed about 10,000 dreams from hundreds of
people.
– Daily concerns, worries, money, health, troubled
relationships, or jobs
• The role of environment demonstrated by Punamaki and
Joustie by studying the dreams of children in Palestine living in
the Gaza Strip, Palestinian children living in peaceful part of
Israel, and children in Finland.
• Certain themes are also prevalent: falling, being chased, or
being attacked. See table 4.3
• Aggression is more common, more likely to be a victim.
• Environmental cues can influence dream content.
Why don’t we remember our dreams?
• Memory requires information to be processed and
stored in a way that it can be retrieved. Fundamental
changes in brain chemistry and functioning may fail to
support such processing and storage. There is also a
reduction of serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine.
• More likely to recall if you wake up in the middle of it.
• People who are better at remembering visual details
when awake are more likely to remember dreams.
• The more vivid, bizarre, or emotionally intense a
dream is the more likely it is to be remembered.
• Mary Calkins (1893) found that distractions interfere
with our ability.
• Read the focus box 4.4 in in your book
The Significance of Dreams
Freud
• The Interpretation of Dreams
– Repressed urges and wishes surface in
dreams
• Manifest content – dream images
themselves
• Latent content – the disguised
psychological meaning
• Research has not supported Freud’s
beliefs.
Activation-Synthesis Theory
• Dreams are the mind’s attempt to make
sense of random neural firings in the
brain as one sleeps.
• J. Allan Hobson 1977
Information-Processing Theory
• Dreams serve an important memoryrelated function by sorting and sifting
through the day’s experiences
• Research suggests REM sleep helps
memory storage.
Physiological Function Theory
• Neural activity during REM sleep
provides periodic stimulation of the
brain.
Cognitive Development Theory
• Dreams part of the maturation process
• Dreams reflect our knowledge
• Reflection of normal cognitive
development
Nightmares
• Can produce spontaneous awakenings
and content is immediately recalled.
• General theme is helplessness or
powerless in face of danger
• Especially common in young children
Sleep Disorders and
Sleep Problems
Sleep Disorders
• Insomnia – difficulty falling or staying asleep
• Narcolepsy – falling asleep uncontrollably
– http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001805/
• Sleep Apnea – stops breathing. Carbon dioxide
builds up in the blood, carbon dioxide builds up in
the blood causing the sleep to wake and gasp for
air. http://sleepapnea.org/learn/sleep-apnea.html
• Night Terrors – intense arousal and panic – NREM
http://www.nightterrors.org/
• Somnambulism –
sleepwalkinghttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhe
alth/PMH0001811/
• REM sleep behavior disorder – acting out dreams,
men over age 60. Brain fails to supress voluntary
muscle movement.
Sleep Apnea
• Sleep disorder characterized by temporary
cessations of breathing during sleep and
consequent momentary reawakenings.
• Tend to be loud snorers
• Continuous Positive Airway Pressure machine
Narcolepsy
• Sleep disorder characterized by
uncontrollable sleep attacks
• Person may lapse directly into REM
sleep
Somnambulism
•
•
•
•
Formal name for sleepwalking
Starts in the deep stages of N-REM sleep
Person can walk or talk and is able to see
Rarely has any memory of the event
Night Terrors
• Sleep disorder characterized by high
arousal and appearance of being
terrified
• Unlike nightmares
• Happens during stage 4 sleep; mostly
children
• The children seldom remember the
event.
Other Sleep Disorders
• Bruxism – teeth grinding
• Enuresis – bed wetting
• Myoclonus – sudden jerk of a body part
occurring during stage 1 sleep
– Everyone has occasional episodes of
myoclonus
Psychoactive Drugs Alter
Consciousness
• Alter arousal, mood, thinking, sensations,
and perceptions.
– Depressants, Opiates, Stimulants,
Psychedelic Drugs
Common Properties of
Psychoactive Drugs
• Physical dependence (addicting)
• Drug tolerance
• Withdrawal symptoms
– Drug rebound effect
Biological Effects
• Impact different areas, but related to the
brain they alter synaptic transmission
among neurons
• Effects vary among people
– Age, weight, gender, race, ethnicity
• African-Americans absorb more nicotine than
European-Americans or Mexican-Americans, and
they metabolize nicotine more slowly.
– Personality characteristics, mood,
expectations, and experience with the drug
The Depressants
• Inhibit central nervous system activity
• Drowsiness, sedation, sleep, relieve
anxiety
– Alcohol, barbiturates, tranquilizers, inhalants.
Alcohol
– May reduce the risk of heart diseases due to effects
on cholesterol
– Dangerous: each year 25,000 automobile fatalities,
12,000 murders, 2/3 of spouse abuse, 3rd leading
cause of birth defects, binge drinking,
– Estimated 7 million alcoholics
– Takes one hour to metabolize one drink (one oz of
whiskey, 4 oz of wine, and 12 oz of beer) Weight,
gender, and food consumption also play a role.
– Depresses some neuron activity, but increases
production of GABA (tells the brain to slow down)
Barbiturates
• Reduce anxiety and promote sleep (deep
sleep) aka “downers”
• Seconal, Nembutal
• Depress brain centers that control arousal,
wakefulness
• Low dose causes relaxation, mild euphoria,
reduced inhibitions
• High doses can cause unconsciousness, coma,
and death
• W/D produces irritability and nightmares. W/D
from high doses produces hallucinations,
disorientation, restlessness, and convulsions
Tranquilizers
• Relieve anxiety
• Xanax, Valium, Librium, and Ativan
• Chemically similar to barbiturates but are
less powerful
Inhalants
• Paint solvents, model airplane glue,
nitrous oxide, aerosol sprays
• Central nervous system depressants
• High doses = hallucinations, loss of
consciousness
• Suffocation, substances are toxic
Opiates aka Narcotics
• Addictive drugs that relieve pain and
produce feelings of euphoria by mimicking
endorphins
• Natural opiates derived form the opium
poppy: morphine & codeine
• Synthetic: heroin, methadone, and
prescription Percodan, Demerol, OxyContin
• w/d not life-threatening
• Opiates and the Civil War
– http://www.4thus.com/opium
Stimulants
• All vary in effects, legal status, and manner in which they
are taken. All are at least mildly addicting and increase brain
activity.
• Caffeine – stimulates the cerebral cortex, resulting in
increased mental alertness and wakefulness. Withdrawal
symptoms: headaches, irritability, drowsiness, fatigue. High
doses: high anxiety, restlessness, insomnia, and increased
heart rate.
• Nicotine – it is stimulant not a depressant. Frontal lobes,
thalamus, hippocampus, and amygdala. Reaches the brain
in seconds, but leaves within 30 minutes. Pack a day
smoker will average 70,000 “hits” a year. HIGHLY
addictive. W/D: jumpiness, irritability, tremors, headaches,
drowsiness, “brain fog”
• Amphetamines
• “Uppers or speed” reduce appetite
(tolerance happens quickly).
• Extended use followed by “crashing”, w/d
symptoms include fatigue, sleep, mental
depression, and increased appetite.
• Prescriptions: Benzedrine & Dexedrine
• Illegal: meth (methamphetamine) Made at
home with household chemicals, intense
high and lasts longer.
Meth continued..
• PET scans show brain abnormalities &
functioning, reduction of dopamine
receptors and transporters (help recycle
dopamine).
• Memory and motor skill loss
Cocaine
• Illegal stimulant derived from leaves of the
coca tree (not cacao for chocolate).
• Inhaled, snorted in powder form reaches
the brain within a few minutes.
• Euphoria, mental alertness, and selfconfidence
• Crack a more concentrated form is
smoked.
• http://www.cnn.com/2011/HEALTH/07/22/
social.history.cocaine/index.html
Stimulant Induced Psychosis
• Schizophrenia-like symptoms develop,
including auditory hallucinations of voices
and bizarrely paranoid ideas.
• “Cocaine bugs” refers to an unusual tactile
hallucination that occurs in stimulantinduced psychosis but not in
schizophrenia. People itch, tingle, and
claim insects are crawling on or under
their skin.
Psychedelic Drugs
“mind manifesting”
• Create perceptual distortions, alter mood, and affect thinking.
Many have been used for thousands of years.
• Mescaline (cactus)
• Psilocybin (mushrooms)
• LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide) – more potent than natural
psychedelic drugs. One-millionth of an ounce can produce
profound psychological effects. Chemically similar to Serotonin
(regulates moods & sensations).
– “Bad trips”: extreme anxiety, panic, psychotic episodes
– Usually no physical dependence or W/D symptoms
– Adverse reactions: flashbacks, depressions, psychological
instability, prolonged psychotic reactions
Marijuana
• Active chemical, tetrahydrocannabinol, THC.
• Reaches the brain in seconds. Interferes with muscle
coordination and perception, intensified with alcohol. Has
shown to interfere with learning, memory, and cognitive
functioning.
• Low to moderate doses usually only produce mild psychedelic
experiences. Sense of well-being, mild euphoria, and
relaxation.
• Chronic users may develop w/d symptoms: irritability,
restlessness, insomnia, tremors, and decreased appetite
(rebound effect).
• In cancer patients it’s used to prevent nausea and vomiting
caused by chemotherapy.
• Has been shown to help with pain, epilepsy, hypertension,
nausea, glaucoma, and asthma.
Designer “Club” Drugs
• Ecstasy (MDMA), structurally similar to
mescaline and amphetamines, has stimulant
and psychedelic effects.
– “love drug”
– Developed by German pharmaceutical for a
possible appetite suppressant (1912)
– Dehydration, rapid heartbeat, temors, muscle
tension, teeth clenching, hyperthermia
– Increases serotonin and prohibits reuptake
– Depression, brain damage (serotonin receptors)
• Dissociative Anesthetics
– Angel Dust, PCP (phencyclidine), Special K (ketamine)
– Originally developed for surgery (1950s)
– Produced feelings of dissociation and depersonalization,
detachment from reality. Distortions of time, space, and body
image.
– Can be eaten, snorted, or injected. Sometimes combined with
marijuana.
– Can last for several days.
– Feelings of exaggerated strength.
– Users can become violent and suicidal.
– Affects neurotransmitter glutamate, indirectly stimulating the
release of dopamine (rewarding sensations).
– Highly addictive
– Memory problems, depression
• http://www.justice.gov/dea/about/history.sh
tml
• http://www.justthinktwice.com/
• http://www.washingtonpost.com/national/hi
gh-fliers-marijuana-votes-in-coloradowashington-state-raise-specter-of-pottourism/2012/11/09/7618a58c-2a54-11e2aaa5-ac786110c486_story.html
Hypnosis
• Person responds to the hypnotist’s suggestions with changes
in perception, memory, and behavior.
• Greek hypnos means sleep.
• Hypnosis is a therapeutic technique in which clinicians make
suggestions to individuals who have undergone a procedure
designed to relax them and focus their minds.
• Although hypnosis has been controversial, most clinicians now
agree it can be a powerful, effective therapeutic technique for a
wide range of conditions, including pain, anxiety and mood
disorders. Hypnosis can also help people change their habits,
such as quitting smoking.
• Hypnotized people do not lose control of their behavior. They
are not in a trance, they are highly focused. Hypnosis is seen
to be voluntary. People who are highly susceptible have the
ability to be deeply absorbed in fantasy and imaginary
experience.
Some research says…
• Sensory changes can be induced
(temporary blindness, deafness, or loss of
sensation in a part of the body)
• Hallucinations
• Posthypnotic suggestions
• Posthypnotic amnesia
• Hypermnesia (enhances memory)
Help Through Hypnosis
• Reduce pain
• Reduce the use of narcotics
• Improve concentration, motivation, and
performance
• Lessen and severity of asthma
• Eliminate nightmares
• Obesity, hypertension, and anxiety
• Remove warts
• Reduce or eliminate stuttering
• Suppress gag reflex during dental procedures
Consciousness Divided?
• Ernest R. Hilgard (Stanford)
– Dissociation (two or more simultaneous
streams of mental activity)
– Neodissociation Theory of Hypnosis: one
stream of mental activity that is responding to
the hypnotist’s suggestions and second that is
processing information unavailable to the
consciousness of the subject, “hidden
observer.”
The End
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