Download Chapter 1 - Introduction to Electronics

Chapter 1 - Introduction to Electronics
Introduction
Microelectronics
Integrated Circuits (IC) Technology
Silicon Chip
Microcomputer / Microprocessor
Discrete Circuits
Signals
Signal Processing
Transducers
http://www.eas.asu.edu/~midle/jdsp/jdsp.html
Signals
Voltage Sources
Current Sources
Thevenin & Norton
http://www.clarkson.edu/%7Esvoboda/eta/ClickDevice/refdir.html
http://www.clarkson.edu/%7Esvoboda/eta/Circuit_Design_Lab/circuit_design_lab.html
http://www.clarkson.edu/%7Esvoboda/eta/CircuitElements/vcvs.html
Figure 1.1 Two alternative representations of a signal source: (a) the Thévenin form, and (b) the Norton form.
Figure 1.2 An arbitrary voltage signal vs(t).
Figure 1.3 Sine-wave voltage signal of amplitude Va and frequency f = 1/T Hz. The angular frequency v = 2pf rad/s.
Signals
Voltage Sources
Current Sources
Signals
Voltage Sources
Current Sources
http://www.clarkson.edu/~svoboda/eta/ClickDevice/super.html
http://javalab.uoregon.edu/dcaley/circuit/Circuit_plugin.html
Frequency Spectrum of Signals
Fourier Series
frequency
x
time
Fourier Transform
Fundamental and Harmonics
http://www.educatorscorner.com/experiments/spectral/SpecAn3.shtml
Figure 1.4 A symmetrical square-wave signal of amplitude V.
Figure 1.5 The frequency spectrum (also known as the line spectrum) of the periodic square wave of Fig. 1.4.
Figure 1.6 The frequency spectrum of an arbitrary waveform such as that in Fig. 1.2.
Figure 1.7 Sampling the continuous-time analog signal in (a) results in the discrete-time signal in (b).
Frequency Spectrum of Signals
Fourier Series
Def i ni ng t he Si gnal

or Func t i on t o be Anal y z ed:


f ( t)  sin 0 t   ( t)  .2 cos 7 0 t

2
f ( t)
0
2
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
t
http://www.jhu.edu/%7Esignals/fourier2/index.html
Frequency Spectrum of Signals
Fourier Series
Four i er Ser i es ( Tr i gonomet r i c f or m) of f ( t ) :
1 
a0   
T 
T
2 
a   
n
T 
T
a0  0
f ( t) dt
av er age v al ue
0


f ( t)  cos n  0 t d t
c os i ne c oef f i c i ent s
0
n v ar y i ng f r om 1 t o N
an
0
0.1
0
10
20
30
40
n
50
60
Frequency Spectrum of Signals
Fourier Series
2 
b   
n
T 
T


f ( t)  sin n  0 t d t
s i ne c oef f i c i ent s
0
1
bn
0
0.5
0
10
20
30
40
n
50
60
Frequency Spectrum of Signals
Fourier Series
Rear r angi ng t ot al
a1  a
n
c1 
n
b1  b
n
1
2

ex pr es s i on t o i nc l ude a0 i n t he c ompl et e s pec t r um
n
n
a1n2  b1n2
c  a0
0
0.4
c1 n
0
0.2
0
0
10
20
30
40
n
50
60
Frequency Spectrum of Signals
Fourier Series
Rec ons t r uc t i on of t i me- domai n f unc t i on f r om t r i g. Four i er s er i es :
f2( t) 
 an1cos n10t  bn1sinn10t  a0
n1
2
f2( t )
f ( t)
0
2
0
1
2
3
4
t
5
6
Frequency Spectrum of Signals
Fourier Series
Four i er Ser i es ( Compl ex For m) of f ( t ) :
1
w    N     n
n
2


 i w n  0 t
1 
C    f ( t)  e
dt
n
T 
0
0.04
Cn
0
0.02
0
0
10
20
30
40
n
50
60
Frequency Spectrum of Signals
Four i er
Tr ans f or m of
 
f (t )
gi v es :
 1  N      1  N    .25   1  N

 

 2
  2
 2

F   


f ( t)  e
 i   t
dt
0
0.3
F(  )
0.2
0
0.1
0
30
20
10
0
10
20
30

The
obv i
A pl
v ol t
F 
" v ol
magni t
ous l y
ot of
age pr
s hows
t s per
ude of F( ) y i el ds t he c ont i nuous f r equenc y s pec t r um, and i t i s
of t he f or m of t he s ampl i ng f unc t i on.
The v al ue of F( 0) i s A.
| F( ) | as a f unc t i on of  does not i ndi c at e t he magni t ude of t he
es ent at any gi v en f r equenc y .
What i s i t , t hen?
Ex ami nat i on of


t hat , i f f ( t ) i s a v ol t age wav ef or m, t hen F  i s di mens i onal l y
uni t f r equenc y , " a c onc ept t hat may be s t r ange t o mos t of us .
Frequency Spectrum of Signals
http://www.jhu.edu/%7Esignals/fourier2/index.html
http://www.jhu.edu/%7Esignals/listen/music1.html
http://www.jhu.edu/%7Esignals/phasorlecture2/indexphasorlect2.htm
Figure 1.8 Variation of a particular binary digital signal with time.
Figure 1.9 Block-diagram representation of the analog-to-digital converter (ADC).
Analog and Digital Signals
Sampling Rate
http://www.jhu.edu/%7Esignals/sampling/index.html
Binary number system
http://scholar.hw.ac.uk/site/computing/activity11.asp
Analog-to-Digital Converter
http://www.astro-med.com/knowledge/adc.html
http://www.maxim-ic.com/design_guides/English/AD_CONVERTERS_21.pdf
Digital-to-Analog Converter
http://www.maxim-ic.com/ADCDACRef.cfm
Figure 1.10 (a) Circuit symbol for amplifier. (b) An amplifier with a common terminal (ground) between the input and output ports.
Figure 1.11 (a) A voltage amplifier fed with a signal vI(t) and connected to a load resistance RL. (b) Transfer characteristic of a linear voltage amplifier
with voltage gain Av.
Figure 1.12 An amplifier that requires two dc supplies (shown as batteries) for operation.
Figure 1.13 An amplifier transfer characteristic that is linear except for output saturation.
Figure 1.14 (a) An amplifier transfer characteristic that shows considerable nonlinearity. (b) To obtain linear operation the amplifier is biased as shown,
and the signal amplitude is kept small. Observe that this amplifier is operated from a single power supply, VDD.
Figure 1.15 A sketch of the transfer characteristic of the amplifier of Example 1.2. Note that this amplifier is inverting (i.e., with a gain that is negative).
Figure 1.16 Symbol convention employed throughout the book.
Figure 1.17 (a) Circuit model for the voltage amplifier. (b) The voltage amplifier with input signal source and load.
Figure 1.18 Three-stage amplifier for Example 1.3.
Figure 1.19 (a) Small-signal circuit model for a bipolar junction transistor (BJT). (b) The BJT connected as an amplifier with the emitter as a common
terminal between input and output (called a common-emitter amplifier). (c) An alternative small-signal circuit model for the BJT.
Figure E1.20
Figure 1.20 Measuring the frequency response of a linear amplifier. At the test frequency v, the amplifier gain is characterized by its magnitude (Vo/Vi)
and phase f.
Figure 1.21 Typical magnitude response of an amplifier. |T(v)| is the magnitude of the amplifier transfer function—that is, the ratio of the output Vo(v)
to the input Vi(v).
Figure 1.22 Two examples of STC networks: (a) a low-pass network and (b) a high-pass network.
Figure 1.23 (a) Magnitude and (b) phase response of STC networks of the low-pass type.
Figure 1.24 (a) Magnitude and (b) phase response of STC networks of the high-pass type.
Figure 1.25 Circuit for Example 1.5.
Figure 1.26 Frequency response for (a) a capacitively coupled amplifier, (b) a direct-coupled amplifier, and (c) a tuned or bandpass amplifier.
Figure 1.27 Use of a capacitor to couple amplifier stages.
Figure E1.23
Figure 1.28 A logic inverter operating from a dc supply VDD.
Figure 1.29 Voltage transfer characteristic of an inverter. The VTC is approximated by three straightline segments. Note the four parameters of the VTC
(VOH, VOL, VIL, and VIH) and their use in determining the noise margins (NMH and NML).
Figure 1.30 The VTC of an ideal inverter.
Figure 1.31 (a) The simplest implementation of a logic inverter using a voltage-controlled switch; (b) equivalent circuit when vI is low; and (c)
equivalent circuit when vI is high. Note that the switch is assumed to close when vI is high.
Figure 1.32 A more elaborate implementation of the logic inverter utilizing two complementary switches. This is the basis of the CMOS inverter studied
in Section 4.10.
Figure 1.33 Another inverter implementation utilizing a double-throw switch to steer the constant current IEE to RC1 (when vI is high) or RC2 (when vI is
low). This is the basis of the emitter-coupled logic (ECL) studied in Chapters 7 and 11.
Figure 1.34 Example 1.6: (a) The inverter circuit after the switch opens (i.e., for t  0). (b) Waveforms of vI and vO. Observe that the switch is assumed
to operate instantaneously. vO rises exponentially, starting at VOL and heading toward VOH .
Figure 1.35 Definitions of propagation delays and transition times of the logic inverter.
Figure P1.6
Figure P1.10
Figure P1.14
Figure P1.15
Figure P1.16
Figure P1.17
Figure P1.18
Figure P1.37
Figure P1.58
Figure P1.63
Figure P1.65
Figure P1.67
Figure P1.68
Figure P1.72
Figure P1.77
Figure P1.79
Table 1.1 The Four Amplifier Types
Amplifiers
Vin
Vout
Voltage gain (Av) = Vout/Vin
Linear - output is proportional to input
Current amplifiers
current gain (Ai) = Iout/Iin
Power amplifiers
power gain (Ap) = Pout/Pin
Amplifiers
Signal Amplification
vo
 
Voltage_Gain A v
vi
 
Power_Gain  A p 
input_power PI
load_power PL
Distortion
 
Non-Linear Distortion
Current_Gain A i
Symbols
Ap
v o  io
v I iI
io
iI
Av Ai
Gains – Voltage, Power, Current
Decibels
Amplifier Power Supplies
Efficiency




Voltage_gain_in_decibels
20 log A v
Coltage_gain_in_decibels
20 log A i
Power_gain_in_decibels

10 log A p

dB
dB
dB
Amplifiers
Gain in terms of decibels
Typical values of voltage gain, 10, 100, 1000 depending on size of input signal
Decibels often used when dealing with large ranges or multiple stages
Av in decibels (dB) = 20log|Av|
Ai in decibels (dB) = 20log|Ai|
Ap in decibels (dB) = 10log|Ap|
Av = 10 000
Av = 1000
Av = 100
Av = 10
Av = -10
20log|10 000| = 80dB
20log|1000| = 60dB
20log|100| = 40dB
20log|10| = 20dB
20log|-10| = 20dB
Av = 0.1
20log|0.1| = -20dB
Av negative - indicates a phase change (no change in dB)
dB negative - indicates signal is attenuated
Amplifiers
Example 1.1
A v 
9
Av  9
1
Ii  0.0001
A v  20 log  9

9
Io 
1000
Io  9  10
A v  19.085
3

A i  20 log A i

PL  40.5
PI  Virms  Iirms
A p 
PL
PI
Pdc  10 9.5  10 9.5
 
PL
Pdc
 100
Virms 
9
2
1
2
W
W
A p  29.085
Pdc  190
Pdissipated  Pdc  PI  PL
Ii
A i  90
mW
A p  810

Io
Vorms 
dB
mW
PI  0.05
A p  10 log  810
A i 
A
A i  39.085
PL  Vorms  Iorms
dB
dB
mW
Pdissipated  149.55
  21.316
%
mW
A
A
Iorms 
9
Iirms 
0.1
2
2
Amplifiers
Saturation
An amplifier transfer
characteristic that is linear
except for output
saturation.
An amplifier transfer characteristic that is linear except for output saturation.
Amplifiers
Non-Linear Transfer Characteristics and Biasing
An amplifier transfer characteristic that shows considerable nonlinearity. (b) To obtain
linear operation the amplifier is biased as shown, and the signal amplitude is kept small.
Amplifiers
Circuit model of a voltage amplifier
+
I=0
+
Vin
Vout
-
-
Vout = Avo Vin
Ri = input resistance
Ro = output resistance
•EPOLY is a dependent source is SPICE; a
voltage controlled voltage source (VCVS)
•EPOLY has a gain of Avo
•The input to EPOLY is the voltage across
Ri
Amplifiers
Voltage amplifier with input source and load
+
+
Vin
Vout
-
-
•Avo - gain of VCVS only, o indicates
output is open
•Av - gain of entire circuit
Av changes with circuit, Avo does not!
What should we design Ro to be?
•Av = Vout/Vin = Avo RL/(RL + Ro)
•Let Ro < < RL to make Av maximum
•Ideally Ro = 0
Amplifiers
Input resistance of amplifier circuit
+
+
Vin
Vout
-
-
What should we design Rin to be?
•Vin = Vs Ri/(Ri + Rs)
•Let Rin >> Rs to make Vin = Vs
•Ideally Rin = infinity
If Rin = infinity, then all of Vs
makes it to the the amplifier;
otherwise part of the signal is lost
Amplifiers
Basic characteristics of ideal amplifier
For maximum voltage transfer
Rout = 0
Rin = infinity
Amplifiers
Example 1.2
v I  0.6  0.61  0.69
 11 40 vI
 
v o v I  10  10
e
10
 
vo vI
5
0
0.58
0.6
0.62
0.64
vI
0.66
0.68
0.7
Amplifiers
Lminus  0.3
Example 1.2
v o  0.3
v I  0
inital value
given
vo
 11
10  10
e
40 vI
 
v I  Find v I
v I  0.69
v I  0
 
 11
40 vI
v o v I  10  10
e
Lplus  v o ( 0)
Lplus  10
v I  0
v o  5
vo
given
 11
10  10
 
v I  Find v I
e
40 vI
v I  0.673
Amplifiers
Example 1.2
 11 40 vI
10  10
1
2500000000
1
2500000000
highlight equation use symbolics
then differentiate
e


 exp 40 v I
 exp ( 40 0.673)  196.457
Circuit Models For Amplifiers
Voltage Amplifiers
Common Models
Show example on board
Circuit Models For Amplifiers
Example 1.3
Class assignment
Circuit Models For Amplifiers
Other Amplifiers
Current
Transconductance
Transresistance
Circuit Models For Amplifiers
Example 1.4
Large-signal equivalent-circuit models of the npn BJT operating in the active mode.
Frequency Response of Amplifiers
Bandwidth
Frequency Response of Amplifiers
Bandwidth
RC Circuits – Class Exercise
Single-Time Constant Networks
http://www.clarkson.edu/%7Esvoboda/eta/plots/FOC.html
http://www.clarkson.edu/%7Esvoboda/eta/acWorkout/Switched_RCandRL.html
Frequency Response of Amplifiers
Bandwidth
(a) Magnitude and (b) phase response of STC networks of the low-pass type.
Frequency Response of Amplifiers
Frequency Response of Amplifiers
Bandwidth
Frequency Response of Amplifiers
(a) Magnitude and (b) phase response of STC networks of the high-pass type.
Frequency Response of Amplifiers
Example 1.5
Class assignment
Frequency Response of Amplifiers
Classification of Amplifiers
Based on Frequency Response
Frequency Response of Amplifiers
Exercise 1.6
Class assignment
The Digital Logic Inverter
Function
Transfer Characteristics
Noise Margins
The Digital Logic Inverter
Function
Transfer Characteristics
Noise Margins
The Digital Logic Inverter
Inverter Implementation