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Chapter 1 - Introduction to Electronics Introduction Microelectronics Integrated Circuits (IC) Technology Silicon Chip Microcomputer / Microprocessor Discrete Circuits Signals Signal Processing Transducers http://www.eas.asu.edu/~midle/jdsp/jdsp.html Signals Voltage Sources Current Sources Thevenin & Norton http://www.clarkson.edu/%7Esvoboda/eta/ClickDevice/refdir.html http://www.clarkson.edu/%7Esvoboda/eta/Circuit_Design_Lab/circuit_design_lab.html http://www.clarkson.edu/%7Esvoboda/eta/CircuitElements/vcvs.html Figure 1.1 Two alternative representations of a signal source: (a) the Thévenin form, and (b) the Norton form. Figure 1.2 An arbitrary voltage signal vs(t). Figure 1.3 Sine-wave voltage signal of amplitude Va and frequency f = 1/T Hz. The angular frequency v = 2pf rad/s. Signals Voltage Sources Current Sources Signals Voltage Sources Current Sources http://www.clarkson.edu/~svoboda/eta/ClickDevice/super.html http://javalab.uoregon.edu/dcaley/circuit/Circuit_plugin.html Frequency Spectrum of Signals Fourier Series frequency x time Fourier Transform Fundamental and Harmonics http://www.educatorscorner.com/experiments/spectral/SpecAn3.shtml Figure 1.4 A symmetrical square-wave signal of amplitude V. Figure 1.5 The frequency spectrum (also known as the line spectrum) of the periodic square wave of Fig. 1.4. Figure 1.6 The frequency spectrum of an arbitrary waveform such as that in Fig. 1.2. Figure 1.7 Sampling the continuous-time analog signal in (a) results in the discrete-time signal in (b). Frequency Spectrum of Signals Fourier Series Def i ni ng t he Si gnal or Func t i on t o be Anal y z ed: f ( t) sin 0 t ( t) .2 cos 7 0 t 2 f ( t) 0 2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 t http://www.jhu.edu/%7Esignals/fourier2/index.html Frequency Spectrum of Signals Fourier Series Four i er Ser i es ( Tr i gonomet r i c f or m) of f ( t ) : 1 a0 T T 2 a n T T a0 0 f ( t) dt av er age v al ue 0 f ( t) cos n 0 t d t c os i ne c oef f i c i ent s 0 n v ar y i ng f r om 1 t o N an 0 0.1 0 10 20 30 40 n 50 60 Frequency Spectrum of Signals Fourier Series 2 b n T T f ( t) sin n 0 t d t s i ne c oef f i c i ent s 0 1 bn 0 0.5 0 10 20 30 40 n 50 60 Frequency Spectrum of Signals Fourier Series Rear r angi ng t ot al a1 a n c1 n b1 b n 1 2 ex pr es s i on t o i nc l ude a0 i n t he c ompl et e s pec t r um n n a1n2 b1n2 c a0 0 0.4 c1 n 0 0.2 0 0 10 20 30 40 n 50 60 Frequency Spectrum of Signals Fourier Series Rec ons t r uc t i on of t i me- domai n f unc t i on f r om t r i g. Four i er s er i es : f2( t) an1cos n10t bn1sinn10t a0 n1 2 f2( t ) f ( t) 0 2 0 1 2 3 4 t 5 6 Frequency Spectrum of Signals Fourier Series Four i er Ser i es ( Compl ex For m) of f ( t ) : 1 w N n n 2 i w n 0 t 1 C f ( t) e dt n T 0 0.04 Cn 0 0.02 0 0 10 20 30 40 n 50 60 Frequency Spectrum of Signals Four i er Tr ans f or m of f (t ) gi v es : 1 N 1 N .25 1 N 2 2 2 F f ( t) e i t dt 0 0.3 F( ) 0.2 0 0.1 0 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 The obv i A pl v ol t F " v ol magni t ous l y ot of age pr s hows t s per ude of F( ) y i el ds t he c ont i nuous f r equenc y s pec t r um, and i t i s of t he f or m of t he s ampl i ng f unc t i on. The v al ue of F( 0) i s A. | F( ) | as a f unc t i on of does not i ndi c at e t he magni t ude of t he es ent at any gi v en f r equenc y . What i s i t , t hen? Ex ami nat i on of t hat , i f f ( t ) i s a v ol t age wav ef or m, t hen F i s di mens i onal l y uni t f r equenc y , " a c onc ept t hat may be s t r ange t o mos t of us . Frequency Spectrum of Signals http://www.jhu.edu/%7Esignals/fourier2/index.html http://www.jhu.edu/%7Esignals/listen/music1.html http://www.jhu.edu/%7Esignals/phasorlecture2/indexphasorlect2.htm Figure 1.8 Variation of a particular binary digital signal with time. Figure 1.9 Block-diagram representation of the analog-to-digital converter (ADC). Analog and Digital Signals Sampling Rate http://www.jhu.edu/%7Esignals/sampling/index.html Binary number system http://scholar.hw.ac.uk/site/computing/activity11.asp Analog-to-Digital Converter http://www.astro-med.com/knowledge/adc.html http://www.maxim-ic.com/design_guides/English/AD_CONVERTERS_21.pdf Digital-to-Analog Converter http://www.maxim-ic.com/ADCDACRef.cfm Figure 1.10 (a) Circuit symbol for amplifier. (b) An amplifier with a common terminal (ground) between the input and output ports. Figure 1.11 (a) A voltage amplifier fed with a signal vI(t) and connected to a load resistance RL. (b) Transfer characteristic of a linear voltage amplifier with voltage gain Av. Figure 1.12 An amplifier that requires two dc supplies (shown as batteries) for operation. Figure 1.13 An amplifier transfer characteristic that is linear except for output saturation. Figure 1.14 (a) An amplifier transfer characteristic that shows considerable nonlinearity. (b) To obtain linear operation the amplifier is biased as shown, and the signal amplitude is kept small. Observe that this amplifier is operated from a single power supply, VDD. Figure 1.15 A sketch of the transfer characteristic of the amplifier of Example 1.2. Note that this amplifier is inverting (i.e., with a gain that is negative). Figure 1.16 Symbol convention employed throughout the book. Figure 1.17 (a) Circuit model for the voltage amplifier. (b) The voltage amplifier with input signal source and load. Figure 1.18 Three-stage amplifier for Example 1.3. Figure 1.19 (a) Small-signal circuit model for a bipolar junction transistor (BJT). (b) The BJT connected as an amplifier with the emitter as a common terminal between input and output (called a common-emitter amplifier). (c) An alternative small-signal circuit model for the BJT. Figure E1.20 Figure 1.20 Measuring the frequency response of a linear amplifier. At the test frequency v, the amplifier gain is characterized by its magnitude (Vo/Vi) and phase f. Figure 1.21 Typical magnitude response of an amplifier. |T(v)| is the magnitude of the amplifier transfer function—that is, the ratio of the output Vo(v) to the input Vi(v). Figure 1.22 Two examples of STC networks: (a) a low-pass network and (b) a high-pass network. Figure 1.23 (a) Magnitude and (b) phase response of STC networks of the low-pass type. Figure 1.24 (a) Magnitude and (b) phase response of STC networks of the high-pass type. Figure 1.25 Circuit for Example 1.5. Figure 1.26 Frequency response for (a) a capacitively coupled amplifier, (b) a direct-coupled amplifier, and (c) a tuned or bandpass amplifier. Figure 1.27 Use of a capacitor to couple amplifier stages. Figure E1.23 Figure 1.28 A logic inverter operating from a dc supply VDD. Figure 1.29 Voltage transfer characteristic of an inverter. The VTC is approximated by three straightline segments. Note the four parameters of the VTC (VOH, VOL, VIL, and VIH) and their use in determining the noise margins (NMH and NML). Figure 1.30 The VTC of an ideal inverter. Figure 1.31 (a) The simplest implementation of a logic inverter using a voltage-controlled switch; (b) equivalent circuit when vI is low; and (c) equivalent circuit when vI is high. Note that the switch is assumed to close when vI is high. Figure 1.32 A more elaborate implementation of the logic inverter utilizing two complementary switches. This is the basis of the CMOS inverter studied in Section 4.10. Figure 1.33 Another inverter implementation utilizing a double-throw switch to steer the constant current IEE to RC1 (when vI is high) or RC2 (when vI is low). This is the basis of the emitter-coupled logic (ECL) studied in Chapters 7 and 11. Figure 1.34 Example 1.6: (a) The inverter circuit after the switch opens (i.e., for t 0). (b) Waveforms of vI and vO. Observe that the switch is assumed to operate instantaneously. vO rises exponentially, starting at VOL and heading toward VOH . Figure 1.35 Definitions of propagation delays and transition times of the logic inverter. Figure P1.6 Figure P1.10 Figure P1.14 Figure P1.15 Figure P1.16 Figure P1.17 Figure P1.18 Figure P1.37 Figure P1.58 Figure P1.63 Figure P1.65 Figure P1.67 Figure P1.68 Figure P1.72 Figure P1.77 Figure P1.79 Table 1.1 The Four Amplifier Types Amplifiers Vin Vout Voltage gain (Av) = Vout/Vin Linear - output is proportional to input Current amplifiers current gain (Ai) = Iout/Iin Power amplifiers power gain (Ap) = Pout/Pin Amplifiers Signal Amplification vo Voltage_Gain A v vi Power_Gain A p input_power PI load_power PL Distortion Non-Linear Distortion Current_Gain A i Symbols Ap v o io v I iI io iI Av Ai Gains – Voltage, Power, Current Decibels Amplifier Power Supplies Efficiency Voltage_gain_in_decibels 20 log A v Coltage_gain_in_decibels 20 log A i Power_gain_in_decibels 10 log A p dB dB dB Amplifiers Gain in terms of decibels Typical values of voltage gain, 10, 100, 1000 depending on size of input signal Decibels often used when dealing with large ranges or multiple stages Av in decibels (dB) = 20log|Av| Ai in decibels (dB) = 20log|Ai| Ap in decibels (dB) = 10log|Ap| Av = 10 000 Av = 1000 Av = 100 Av = 10 Av = -10 20log|10 000| = 80dB 20log|1000| = 60dB 20log|100| = 40dB 20log|10| = 20dB 20log|-10| = 20dB Av = 0.1 20log|0.1| = -20dB Av negative - indicates a phase change (no change in dB) dB negative - indicates signal is attenuated Amplifiers Example 1.1 A v 9 Av 9 1 Ii 0.0001 A v 20 log 9 9 Io 1000 Io 9 10 A v 19.085 3 A i 20 log A i PL 40.5 PI Virms Iirms A p PL PI Pdc 10 9.5 10 9.5 PL Pdc 100 Virms 9 2 1 2 W W A p 29.085 Pdc 190 Pdissipated Pdc PI PL Ii A i 90 mW A p 810 Io Vorms dB mW PI 0.05 A p 10 log 810 A i A A i 39.085 PL Vorms Iorms dB dB mW Pdissipated 149.55 21.316 % mW A A Iorms 9 Iirms 0.1 2 2 Amplifiers Saturation An amplifier transfer characteristic that is linear except for output saturation. An amplifier transfer characteristic that is linear except for output saturation. Amplifiers Non-Linear Transfer Characteristics and Biasing An amplifier transfer characteristic that shows considerable nonlinearity. (b) To obtain linear operation the amplifier is biased as shown, and the signal amplitude is kept small. Amplifiers Circuit model of a voltage amplifier + I=0 + Vin Vout - - Vout = Avo Vin Ri = input resistance Ro = output resistance •EPOLY is a dependent source is SPICE; a voltage controlled voltage source (VCVS) •EPOLY has a gain of Avo •The input to EPOLY is the voltage across Ri Amplifiers Voltage amplifier with input source and load + + Vin Vout - - •Avo - gain of VCVS only, o indicates output is open •Av - gain of entire circuit Av changes with circuit, Avo does not! What should we design Ro to be? •Av = Vout/Vin = Avo RL/(RL + Ro) •Let Ro < < RL to make Av maximum •Ideally Ro = 0 Amplifiers Input resistance of amplifier circuit + + Vin Vout - - What should we design Rin to be? •Vin = Vs Ri/(Ri + Rs) •Let Rin >> Rs to make Vin = Vs •Ideally Rin = infinity If Rin = infinity, then all of Vs makes it to the the amplifier; otherwise part of the signal is lost Amplifiers Basic characteristics of ideal amplifier For maximum voltage transfer Rout = 0 Rin = infinity Amplifiers Example 1.2 v I 0.6 0.61 0.69 11 40 vI v o v I 10 10 e 10 vo vI 5 0 0.58 0.6 0.62 0.64 vI 0.66 0.68 0.7 Amplifiers Lminus 0.3 Example 1.2 v o 0.3 v I 0 inital value given vo 11 10 10 e 40 vI v I Find v I v I 0.69 v I 0 11 40 vI v o v I 10 10 e Lplus v o ( 0) Lplus 10 v I 0 v o 5 vo given 11 10 10 v I Find v I e 40 vI v I 0.673 Amplifiers Example 1.2 11 40 vI 10 10 1 2500000000 1 2500000000 highlight equation use symbolics then differentiate e exp 40 v I exp ( 40 0.673) 196.457 Circuit Models For Amplifiers Voltage Amplifiers Common Models Show example on board Circuit Models For Amplifiers Example 1.3 Class assignment Circuit Models For Amplifiers Other Amplifiers Current Transconductance Transresistance Circuit Models For Amplifiers Example 1.4 Large-signal equivalent-circuit models of the npn BJT operating in the active mode. Frequency Response of Amplifiers Bandwidth Frequency Response of Amplifiers Bandwidth RC Circuits – Class Exercise Single-Time Constant Networks http://www.clarkson.edu/%7Esvoboda/eta/plots/FOC.html http://www.clarkson.edu/%7Esvoboda/eta/acWorkout/Switched_RCandRL.html Frequency Response of Amplifiers Bandwidth (a) Magnitude and (b) phase response of STC networks of the low-pass type. Frequency Response of Amplifiers Frequency Response of Amplifiers Bandwidth Frequency Response of Amplifiers (a) Magnitude and (b) phase response of STC networks of the high-pass type. Frequency Response of Amplifiers Example 1.5 Class assignment Frequency Response of Amplifiers Classification of Amplifiers Based on Frequency Response Frequency Response of Amplifiers Exercise 1.6 Class assignment The Digital Logic Inverter Function Transfer Characteristics Noise Margins The Digital Logic Inverter Function Transfer Characteristics Noise Margins The Digital Logic Inverter Inverter Implementation