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1: The Middle East What do we think of when we say, “the Middle East?” Religious and ethnic conflict? Fervent beliefs and devotion? Pilgrimages to Mecca? American troops in an often hostile land? What else? Oil? Terrorism? The beginnings of Islam, Judaism, and Christianity? Biblical lands? Desert? … Where is the Middle East? Map: Geography of the Middle East Why is it called “the Middle East?” It is to the east of Europe, but not the “Far East.” Hot and dry climate. Earliest governments may have formed to organize water management. Protection against nomads. Crossroads Accessible Constant flow of people (invaders), goods and ideas Resources No grassy plains Deforestation Ex: Lebanon Scarce drinking water Oil Important only since 1945 Only a few countries (Persian Gulf area) Non-renewable People Diversity Various peoples, beliefs, languages, and cultures But– 90% of population: Muslim Half the people speak Arabic Also Turkish or Persian Spread of universal culture Via modern technology 2: The Middle East Before Muhammad Three broad periods of Middle East history: Ancient Medieval Modern The Ancient Middle East: Main breakthroughs to civilization happened there: staple food crops farm animals Earliest agricultural villages World’s oldest cities First governments, religious and legal systems Writing and preservation of records Between two empires: Roman Empire to the west The Mediterranean world Romans expanded to the east Absorbed various Middle Eastern beliefs Including Christianity Persian Empire to the east Iran, Iraq, and surrounding area Zoroastrianism Roman Emperor Constantine (313-337 AD) Converted to Christianity Made the Roman Empire officially Christian Built Constantinople The “Byzantine Empire” The Persians: Rome’s great rival Centered in what is now Iran Not Arabs Parthian and Sassanid Dynasties Zoroastrian Scholars Persian influence spread The Arabs Where did they come from? Semitic Nomadic peoples (bedouins) Domesticated the camel The Arabian Peninsula Dry, isolated, protected springs and oases Arabs organized into clans and tribes Arab tribes Strong defense of honor and freedom Tribes: councils and shaykhs Income derived in part from: Raiding other tribes “protecting” caravans Serving in Roman or Persian armies Setting up trading cities Farming and camel breeding Arabian Culture Warlike Nomadic nature: Little art… except: Poetry Embodied Arab codes of moral principles Mecca Important city: Trade Poets’ fair Ka’bah Housed idols The Quraysh A “sedentarized” tribe Rulers of Mecca Shifted the centers of Middle Eastern power The prime cause: Muhammad A Meccan of the Quraysh 3: The Prophet of Mecca Muhammad’s Early Life Mecca Orphan Objected to Meccans’ paganism View of Jewish and Christian beliefs: Useful for Arabs? First Revelation 610 Ramadan Gabriel Five main points of the message: God is good and all-powerful. Judgment Day. Worship Share Muhammad’s role Prophet to the Arabs Then– God’s final prophet to all humanity. Books The Quran is “God’s perfect revelation.” Partly about divine judgment Partly about personal behavior It “corrects corruptions” in the Gospels & Torah Christians and Jews are “People of the Book” The Quran Contains laws, stories from the past, and devotional pieces. 114 chapters of rhymed prose. Parts were revealed by God at different times. It was revealed in Arabic. Semantics “Muslim” = “one who submits” to God’s will. “Islam” = “the act of submission.” This became the name of the religion. The Hijra Sept. 622: “the Hijra” to Medina United his followers “Umma” Now both a religious and political leader Prophet and lawgiver Islam as both a faith and a sociopolitical system The last prophet Expected Jews to recognize him as God’s messenger 629: Conquers Mecca By 632, nearly all Arab tribes were Muslim Muhammad’s death Muhammad died in June 632 Seen by Muslims as exemplar of Muslim virtues Often has been judged harshly by non-Muslims But clearly a brilliant leader, strategist, and diplomat and one of the most important people who ever lived. And, to Muslims worldwide, the last Prophet of God. Islam No bishops or priests. Free to choose whether and how to submit to God’s will. All Muslims are equal except in their obedience to God’s will. A faith and a way of life. God is all-powerful and all-knowing. Predestination vs. free will. Angels Most powerful servants of God Gabriel When we die, we are questioned by two angels Jinns: spirits (pre-Islamic; “genie”) Al-Shaytan Messengers Prophets: Muhammad Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jonah, Job, Jesus Agree Jesus was born of Virgin Mary and will return Deny he was crucified or was the son of God Judgment Day All living people will die Join those already dead, before the heavenly throne, to be judged for their acts Paradise as a shaded garden Hell is filled with torment The Five Pillars of Islam 1. Witness “There is no god but God, and Muhammad is His prophet.” The Five Pillars of Islam 2. Worship Ritual prayer 5 times a day Wash first Men as a group Women at home Friday noon worship at mosques The Five Pillars of Islam 3. Fasting Month of Ramadan Daybreak to sunset Refrain from eating, drinking, smoking, and sex. Extra time praying. The Five Pillars of Islam 4. Tithing (or sharing) To help the needy. Wealthy give additional gifts to the poor, sick, young, etc. 5. Pilgrimage (Hajj) At least once in a Muslim’s life, if able. Journey to Mecca during the twelfth month of the year. Various rites These acts bring Muslims together and break down various societal barriers among them. Jihad “The sixth pillar of Islam”? “Jihad” = “Struggle in the way of God” Controversial even within Islam: Holy war? But Islam also decrees tolerance. Some Muslims define it as defending Islam. Prohibitions No intoxicating liquors, mind-altering drugs, gambling, or usury No eating of flesh of pigs Men may not wear silk clothes or gold jewelry Harsh penalties for murder, theft, and other crimes Prohibition against idols Sexual relations: should not occur outside of marriage Marriages: Most arranged by parents Varying rules about separation of the sexes and the appropriate covering of women. 4: The Early Arab Conquests Succession Muhammad chose no successor Who would rule? Leaders chose Abu-Bakr Father-in-law Not blood relative of Muhammad Abu-Bakr “Caliph” “Successor of the messenger of God” Faces rebellion by the tribes “Ridda” wars Initial Conquests Umar Turns the tribes toward Jihad. Conquest! Attack both the Romans (Byzantines) and the Persians! Capture territory from Byzantines-- in only a decade Absorb entire Persian (Sassanid) Empire in a generation Effects of Early Conquests Muslim armies extended from Spain to borders of China in only one century! Europe? Christianity loses Holy Land A new empire and civilization grows Diverse— Combining North Africa, Egypt, Syria, Iraq, and Persia under Arab control How did the Arab armies win? Small armies— More cohesive units Large rewards (spoils) Use of horses and camels Use of desert terrain and weather Persians and Byzantines both in decline Islamic Government Need for a more sophisticated system of government Local civil administration left untouched Lower taxes Governmental languages remained local Jews and Christians protected Uthman, 3rd Caliph (644-656) After Umar is assassinated. Issues single authoritative version of Quran. Lacked Umar’s forceful personality Amassed wealth- corrupting influence? Arab troops: Turn to internal disputes again. Revolt– Uthman is killed by rebels. Ali, 4th Caliph (656-661) Related to Muhammad Pious and generous, but a weak leader “Fitna” (time of temptation) Challenged by rivals And by Aisha (M’s youngest wife) “Battle of the Camel” First time two Muslim armies fought each other Challengers killed Aisha sent back to Medina Ali and his sons Ali’s defeat Challenged by Mu’awiya Uthman’s cousin Kharijites rebel Murder Ali Last of the “rightly guided” caliphs Mu’awiya Establishes Umayyad Dynasty Dominant clan in Mecca Lax in their Muslim faith Solidified the Arab empire Adopted a more imperial, bureaucratic style of government “Worldliness” Damascus “fitna” ends Mu’awiya Followers agree that Mu’awiya’s son Yazid will succeed him as Caliph Establishes hereditary caliphate Husayn’s Rebellion But: some Muslims believed only a descendent of Muhammad should be caliph. Husayn (grandson) survived Refused to recognize legitimacy of Yazid Convinced to rebel 72 against 10,000 troops of Yazid Karbala, Iraq, October 680 All 72 are killed Shi’ism Husayn’s supporters: vowed never to recognize legitimacy of the Umayyads “Shi’at Ali” (party of Ali) and then “Shi’is” or “Shi’ites” Now the 2nd largest Muslim sect 1st is the Sunnis Some religious differences Umayyads consolidate rule Defeat various challengers Capital will be Damascus, not Mecca Caliphate now hereditary Held by a Meccan merchant clan Most of the Caliphate’s subjects– not Muslim