* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Download AS Sociology - h6a2sociology
Survey
Document related concepts
Social network wikipedia , lookup
Symbolic interactionism wikipedia , lookup
Postdevelopment theory wikipedia , lookup
Structural functionalism wikipedia , lookup
Differentiation (sociology) wikipedia , lookup
Social development theory wikipedia , lookup
Social group wikipedia , lookup
Public sociology wikipedia , lookup
Sociology of the family wikipedia , lookup
Sociology of terrorism wikipedia , lookup
Index of sociology articles wikipedia , lookup
Sociological theory wikipedia , lookup
History of sociology wikipedia , lookup
Transcript
1 AS Sociology Course Handbook 2009-10 Tutors: Dave Aiken Sonia Jacob and Chrissy Vesey 1 2 Welcome to AS Sociology at Haringey Sixth Form Centre… And congratulations on your success in gaining a place at Haringey Sixth Form Centre. This handbook aims to provide you with an introduction to the subject and the facilities and resources available to you. It includes information on the structure of the course and assessment, study skills, reading lists and the staff (where and when you can find them). We will be using this booklet throughout the course, but especially in the first few weeks, so keep it at the front of your folder. 2 3 Contents… Welcome Contents Staff What is Sociology? Aims and objectives Course structure Assessment What can I do with my AS Calendar Study Skills Reading list and web info Sociology Glossary p.2 p.3 p.3 P.4 p.6 p.7-10 p.11 p.12 p.13 p.14 p.18 p.19 Staff… You will be taught by one of three tutors (Dave Aiken, Sonia Jacob & Chrissy Vesey), although other members of the department will be able to help you with your work in the Study Centre. We are based in the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences on the first floor. The best way of contacting us is by e mail: [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] We also have a Faculty Learning Mentor who will be based in the Study Centre. The learning mentor’s role is to help you with your studies and make sure that you have access to all the resources you need. The study centre has a good stock of Sociology textbooks and there are even more in the Learning Resource Centre as well as useful periodicals like Sociology Review and the New Statesman. 3 4 What is Sociology? The 6 billion people on earth are members of a single biological species: Homo sapiens. But there are striking differences among the world's people. The Chinese wear white at funerals while people in the United Kingdom prefer black. People in England say a watch "runs" while the Spanish say it "walks" and the Germans say it "functions." Most people in England kiss in public, the Chinese kiss only in private; the French kiss publicly twice (once on each cheek), while the Belgians kiss three times (starting on either cheek); the New Zealand Maoris rub noses and, for their part, few Nigerians kiss at all. The world over, people wear much or little clothing, are peaceful or warlike, enjoy different kinds of art and music and hold different religious beliefs. We may be the same people biologically, but we differ in our tastes, behaviours and beliefs. These differences are called cultural differences. The study of how people live is the discipline of Sociology. Sociology is the study of how human societies shape the lives of the people who live in them. People make lots of decisions in the course of living every day. But we make these decisions within the context of "society;" our family, school, nation and the larger world. Are you curious about why things are as they are? Do you want to make the world a better place? Are you a people watcher who enjoys seeing what others do and how they react to various situations? Are you fascinated by the customs and cultures of people who differ from you? If you answered "yes" to most of these questions, you may have what it takes to become a sociologist! 4 5 What should you expect from studying sociology? Most people who begin are excited to find how different the world looks when viewed sociologically. Our way of life loses its "taken for granted" quality and comes alive with questions about "How?" "Why?" and "For whom?" I am passionate about sociology mostly because it is fun to do. It opens your mind and provides answers where you did not even realize there were questions! 5 6 Aims and objectives of the course By studying AS Sociology you will: Develop a knowledge and understanding of the way society works and of how the members of society interact with each other; Use sociological theories to explain social problems and issues such as crime, education, inequality and poverty; Develop an understanding of the methods used by sociologists to find out about the social world; Reflect on your own experience of the social world in which we live; Develop skills which you will be able to use in other subjects and in your wider social life; Be able to apply your knowledge of sociology to everyday life and, as a result, become more aware of the many ways in which we are all different. 6 7 Course structure Week 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. Topic Introduction Induction – What is Sociology? How do we find things out? (Introduction to research methods) The formation of culture. The Process of Socialisation – Nature/nurture, norms, values, etc. Introduction to key concepts for Research methods and ‘two sociologies’ Theoretical ideas in brief, Functionalist, Marxist Action theory and feminism FAMILY Introduction to the Family – key concepts, types of family. Functions of the family. Trends in family life – marriage, marital breakdown, divorce, co-habitation, voluntary childlessness, etc. Related Studies/method Family Diversity New Right view of the family. Post-modern view of the family. The Family – In decline or just changing? Social policy and the family. Rapoport & Rapoport Dennis & Erdos Valerie Riches Gershuny – Standards of Parenting Gittins – familial ideology Roles and Relationships in the family Feminist explanations of family life. Roles and Relationships in the family Childhood – changing position of children Sociological explanations of family life – how functional is the family? Marxist explanations & Dark Side of the Family Demographic changes and the family - the future of the family. An ageing population. Dual-earner households, singlehood, choice. Postmodern approaches to the family. Oakley – Housewife Benston Aries, Postman, Lees MOCK EXAMS What is research? Research Key Terms Types of data i.e. primary vs. Secondary; Quantitative vs. Qualitative) Exam prep activities Group Work: investigation of different hypotheses to address research issues (sampling, ethics, practical, values):- Ik tribe – how would we find out about them? Shirbit culture Genie – Wild Child Parsons Draw society, identify, structures, processes and interaction Matching exercises Parsons Fletcher Social Change, Family formation & kin relationships - Charles Beck & Beck-Gernsheim, Hart, Chandler, Burgoyne & Clarke The secularisation of Weddings Walliss Laing, Nazroo, Ghate et al Cheal, Stacey Choosing Childlessness – McAllister & Clarke. 7 8 Sampling Quality of data- (reliability and validity) P.E.R.V.E.R.T.S - Factors which influence the research process 15. a) b) c) d) e) f) Researching pupils Researching teachers Researching classrooms Researching schools Researching parents Researching a state system? Applying the use of each research method to the study of education e.g. using experiments/ questionnaires, interviews etc to study observation: - what issues will we face? 16. Experiments (lab and field Using experiments to investigate education as part of evaluation (do MIC questions after Education) Questionnaires Using questionnaires to investigate education as part of evaluation (do MIC All teens carry knives; Boys fancy only skinny girls; Teens watch too many reality TV shows; All teens are obsessed with their looks; Most teens are members of gangs today Sorting Exercises Use of skittles and images to illustrate sampling methods ‘Favourite music’ activity Use of traffic light cards according to factor Hypothesis: education related. Similar activity to week 1 introduction Group work o Compare context to another random group e.g. pupils vs. inmates! o Posters o Temping adverts for that research group e.g. students wanted, they must….. o Role plays o Agree/ disagree statements about that group o Eye witness testimony – what would your observation notes look like? o Put yourself in the position of those people being researched… write a letter of complaint! Conduct own mini pieces of research? What went well? – Did you have any problems? – How would you overcome those problems? – Can you trust the information you have gathered to make a general statement about society? Designing experiments Explore issues that need to be considered… Questionnaires: designing and conducting themselves Role Play: interviews (good vs. bad) 8 9 17. 18. questions after Education) Interviews (structured/ unstructured) Using interviews to investigate education as part of evaluation(do MIC questions after Education) Using observations to investigate education as part of evaluation(do MIC questions after Education) Official statistics Using statistics to investigate education as part of evaluation Manipulation of league tables (do MIC questions after Education) Qualitative documents i.e. letters, diaries, autobiographies etc. Content Analysis Using qualitative documents to investigate education as part of evaluation What is / are / ought to be the function/s of education? Sorting exercise with reasons for introduction of compulsory state education Types of schooling Independent/ maintained/ Primary / secondary / further/ HE / private training providers Teaching and learning Hidden curriculum Pupil/ teacher relationships Subcultures Link to ethnicity, gender, achievement etc Stereotyping, labelling, selffulfilling prophecy, also streaming/setting – Interactionist approaches Marxist. Bowles and Gintis, ideological state apparatus Home/school Cultural deprivation. Racism in schools Ethnocentrism School policy Anti-racist education Home/school factors Relative ‘over’ achievement of some ethnic groups How does the experience of 19. What different types of schools/educational institutions are there? 20. What happens in schools? What subcultures exist within schools? 21. How do processes within schools affect individuals? 22. 23. 24. How do we explain differential achievement between classes? (preparing for synoptic option on wealth and poverty) How do schools transmit national and ethnic identities? How do we explain differential achievement between ethnic groups? (preparing for synoptic option on differentiation) How do schools transmit femininity and Interviewing techniques: Ali G/ Parkinson Secret Policeman Big Brother Clips Mix and match activities Presentations via different learning styles e.g. reporters, rappers, examiners, new way of improving… (intelligent soc’s), teachers etc Processes CJS statistics Studying old documents e.g. war diaries etc Studying a selection of magazines 9 10 masculinity? How can we explain differential achievement between boys and girls? 25. How have political decisions shaped schooling? What are the main features of the school system today? 26. What is the relationship between education / schooling and work / the economy? What is the role of further and higher education? 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. Mopping up Revision Revision Revision START OF EXAMS education differ for girls and boys? Evidence of differential attainment Reasons for differential attainment Historical overview 1870 –1979 including Butler, comprehensives, failure to abolish independents Historical overview 1979 to present including vocationalism, National Curriculum, 1988 ERA, increasing participation, inclusivity etc Competition, choice, league tables C2K, 14-19 Green Paper Impact of new technologies on teaching and learning Correspondence theory, vocationalism Present and future of FE and HE, including participation and lifelong learning Assessment While studying AS Sociology, you will be assessed using the Assessment Objectives specified in the syllabus – you can find a description of these in the Study Skills section of this booklet. Assessment will be used as a way of helping you to improve, rather than just a methods of indicating how you are doing. So, before completing each assessment activity, you will need to look at your last piece of feedback and think about the targets you were given. When this is a piece of written work, you must write the targets on the top of your piece of work! 10 11 We will be using a number of methods to assess your progress: Extended writing Powerpoint presentations Web-page design Use of media, e.g. radio documentaries, drama, video, etc Presentations Practice exam questions You will also be expected to assess your own work and that of your peers. Peer-marking is an excellent way of learning what the examiner expects of you and it will be a regular feature of the course. Key Skills Through your Sociology course, some of you will also be completing work towards your Key Skills Qualifications. Key Skills are a qualification that ensure that all students have developed essential skills in IT, Communication and Application of Number. During your sociology course, you will be asked to complete some pieces of work to put in your Key Skills portfolio. These would all be pieces of work that you would do anyway, but they will be marked according to different criteria. What can I do with an AS level in Sociology? Most of you will progress to A2 Sociology and study topics such as Crime, Education and Social Inequality. We look at exciting social problems and issues such as: Why are girls improving at a faster rate than boys in education? In wealthy countries like Britain and the US, why does a large percentage of the population live in poverty? Why are young black men eight times more likely to be stopped and searched than young white men? 11 12 Your A level in Sociology will equip you with many skills that you can use in other subjects and in other areas of your life. Most degree courses include some Sociology: Medicine & Nursing – the Sociology of Health History – Social and economic history English – the social context of novels, feminism in the novel, the development of language There are also many degree courses where your A level in Sociology will be really helpful, if not essential: Sociology Social Policy and Administration Criminology Cultural Studies Law American Studies Psychology Anthropology Sociology also opens doors to many areas of employment: Social researcher, Counsellor, Community worker, Probation Officer, Social worker, Charity fundraiser, Primary or Secondary school teacher, FE Lecturer, Retail Manager, Local Councillor, Journalist, TV researcher, Political researcher, Police Officer or even an agent for MI5! Study Skills Sociology has become very skills orientated. Examiners stress the importance of Sociology students developing two skill domains. Your ability to demonstrate these skills will determine your grades for coursework and the exams. These skills will also benefit other subjects. The skills are called Assessment Objectives. Assessment Objective 1 (AO1) 12 13 The examiners are looking for your ability to demonstrate KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING of sociological theories, studies, concepts and methods of enquiry. To gain marks for this AO, you need to: o Recall the names of sociologists o Use sociologists’ theories o Use sociological concepts – key ideas and be able to define them o Use evidence to support theories o Understand the methods used to gain evidence to support theories and reasons for selecting them o Be able to communicate the above in a coherent argument, selecting relevant information to answer the question set. Your spelling, grammar and punctuation are also taken into account within this assessment objective. Poor spelling or punctuation can stop you from getting the highest grades available. Assessment Objective 2 (AO2) Here, examiners are looking for you to demonstrate your skills of IDENTIFICATION, ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION AND EVALUATION. You must show that you can select and apply a range of concepts and theories, interpret quantitative and qualitative data, identify and evaluate social trends, evaluate different theories, arguments and evidence. You must present your arguments in an organised, coherent manner, well communicated, displaying an awareness of theoretical debates in sociology using evidence to support and sustain arguments and conclusions. For this assessment objective you will need to show that you can: o Use you knowledge and understanding to identify trends in data 13 14 o Analyse the information and break it down into its constituent parts – looking for areas neglected and assumptions made, logical coherence in the argument o Interpret, i.e. select from your body of knowledge the ‘bits’ or versions that best suit the question o Evaluate, i.e. weigh up the strengths and weaknesses of approaches – ask awkward questions and take nothing for granted – pick to bits the approaches offered by competing sociologists o Ask how evidence was gathered, when it was gathered, i.e. can it explain the present? Can it be checked/repeated? Is the approach theoretically biased? Have ethnicity, class and gender been taken into account? o What are the good ‘bits’? What are the bad ‘bits’? Take the role of the judge and jury – hear the competing claims, consider the evidence, decide which is the most convincing, explain why, give you verdict justifying your choice. Teaching and Learning styles Sociology employs a variety of teaching and learning styles. For example, we will use discussion and debate, study guides, videos, groupwork, drama, music and student presentations. Should you have any difficulty understanding and you feel that the teacher is unaware of this, it is vital you tell the teacher that you are having problems. You will also be given the opportunity to go to Student Conferences. All students are expected to make regular use of the Learning Resource Centre and the resources in the study centre. Study guidelines Sociology will require a lot of commitment from you. It is recommended that you spend 5 hours a week outside lesson time on Sociology private study. Clearly the demands will vary according to how much work is set. It is vital that you develop good study habits at this stage 14 15 Organization This is the key to being a successful student. How to be organized: a) Number and date all your notes and handouts to keep them in order b) Keep a separate file for each major sociological area c) Take responsibility for catching up if you miss a lesson. Find the resources that you missed on the VLE and also photocopy a friend’s notes. d) Check the relevant section in the textbooks and make extra concise notes if it improves your understanding. If you don’t feel confident about a particular area, consult your teacher. e) If you do find that you are having problems understanding some of what is covered, make sure that you attend subject tutorials regularly. Reading On any Sociology course you will be expected to undertake a lot of wider reading. This includes textbooks, books that are entirely about the topics you are studying, magazine articles, newspapers, etc. An important skill in Sociology is the ability to pick out the most relevant bits. You must keep up to date with Current Affairs – read the paper, watch the news and bring in any interesting articles you find. Reading list and useful websites The main textbook we will be using is: 15 16 Sociology AS Level for AQA Moore, Chapman & Aiken Sociology AS – the complete course for the AQA specification Webb et al But you can dip into the rest: Sociology Themes and Perspectives: AS and A-level Student Handbook Haralambos & Holborn Sociology in Focus for AQAAS level Haralambos, Richardson, Pilkington & Taylor Heinemann Sociology for AQA: AS student handbook Czerniawski, Kidd & Abbott Investigating Families N. Jorgenson Families D. Leonard How to do Social Research Dunsmuir & Hood Williams Doing Sociology Harvey & MacDonald Research Methods McNeill & Chapman A-Z Sociology handbook Lawson & Garrod Readings in Sociology W. Kidd et al Sociology since 1995 16 17 Blundell & Griffiths And some useful websites: The best way of accessing the resources online is to visit www.sociology.org.uk and use the links page to find the site you want. Other good sites include: http://www.educationforum.co.uk/sociology_2/a1a2.htm – this is the website for Dartford Technology College – follow the links to the area you need www.s-cool.co.uk – this site has some useful revision summaries http://www.ngfl-cymru.org.uk/vtc-home/vtc-post-16-home/vtcas_sociology.htm - Bryn Hafryn School site. It offers materials, study skills guidance and resources for students of sociology at GCSE and A Level. There are powerpoint presentations, pdf files and quiz shows www.longroad.ac.uk – Quite a good revision section – very good if you’re doing Psychology! http://www.freewebs.com/bpsnotes/sociology.htm -This is a site from an Advanced level student, with access to his notes. 17 18 Sociology Glossary A absolute poverty A level of economic deprivation in which people do not have the means to secure the most basic necessities of life. achieved status A social position that a person assumes voluntarily as a result of personal choice, merit, or direct effort. age stratification The inequalities, differences, segregation, or conflict between age groups. ageism Prejudice and discrimination against people on the basis of age, particularly when they are older persons. agenda-setting The principle that members of the press do not tell people what to think but do tell people what and whom to think about. 18 19 agents of socialization Those persons, groups, or institutions that teach people what they need to know in order to participate in society. alienation A feeling of powerlessness and estrangement from other people and from oneself. apartheid The policy of the South African government that required the separation of the races. ascribed status A social position that is conferred on a person at birth or received involuntarily later in life. assimilation A process by which members of subordinate racial and ethnic groups become absorbed into the dominant culture. authority Power that people accept as legitimate rather than coercive. B body consciousness How a person perceives and feels about his or her body; it also includes an awareness of social conditions in society that contribute to this self-knowledge. bourgeoisie (or capitalist class) Karl Marx's term for the class comprised of those who own and control the means of production. bureaucracy An organizational model characterized by a hierarchy of authority, a clear division of labour, explicit rules and procedures, and impersonality in personnel matters. C capitalism An economic system characterized by private ownership of the means of production, from which personal profits can be derived through market competition and without government intervention. caste system A system of social inequality in which people's status is permanently determined at birth based on their parents' ascribed characteristics. category A number of people who may never have met one another but who share a similar characteristic. class The relative location of a person or group within a larger society, based on wealth, power, prestige, or other valued resources. 19 20 class conflict Karl Marx's term for the struggle between the capitalist class and the working class. class system A type of stratification based on the ownership and control of resources and on the kinds of work people do. cohabitation The sharing of a household by a couple who live together without being legally married. cohort A category of people who are born within a specified period in time or who share some specified characteristic in common. collective behaviour Voluntary, often spontaneous, activity that is engaged in by a large number of people and typically violates dominant group norms and values. conflict perspective The sociological approach that views groups in society as engaged in a continuous power struggle for control of scarce resources. conformity The process of maintaining or changing behaviour to comply with the norms established by a society, subculture, or other group. content analysis The systematic examination of cultural artifacts or various forms of communication to extract thematic data and draw conclusions about social life. control group Subjects in an experiment who are not exposed to the independent variable but later are compared to subjects in the experimental group. correlation A relationship that exists when two (or more) variables are associated more frequently than could be expected by chance. counterculture A group that strongly rejects dominant societal values and norms and seeks alternative lifestyles. . crime Behaviour that violates criminal law and is punishable with fines, jail terms, and other sanctions. cultural capital Pierre Bourdieu's term for people's social assets, including their values, beliefs, attitudes, and competencies in language and culture. 20 21 culture The knowledge, language, values, customs, and material objects that are passed from person to person and from one generation to the next in a human group or society. D deductive approach Research in which the investigator begins with a theory and then collects information and data to test the theory. democracy A political system in which people hold the ruling power, either directly or indirectly. dependent variable A variable that is assumed to depend on or be caused by one or more other (independent) variables. descriptive study Research that attempts to describe social reality or provide detailed facts about some group, practice, or event. deviance Any behaviour, belief, or condition that violates cultural norms. disability A physical or health condition that stigmatizes or causes discrimination. discrimination Actions or practices of dominant group members (or their representatives) that have a harmful impact on members of a subordinate group. domestic partnership A household partnership in which an unmarried couple lives together in a committed, sexually intimate relationship and is granted the same benefits as those accorded to married heterosexual couples. dual-earner marriage Marriage in which both spouses are in the labour force. dysfunctions A term referring to the undesirable consequences of any element of a society. E economy The social institution that ensures the maintenance of society through the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. 21 22 education The social institution responsible for the systematic transmission of knowledge, skills, and cultural values within a formally organized structure. egalitarian family A family structure in which both partners share power and authority equally. ego According to Sigmund Freud, the rational, reality-oriented component of personality that imposes restrictions on the innate pleasure-seeking drives of the id. empirical approach Research that attempts to answer questions through a systematic collection and analysis of data. ethnic group A collection of people distinguished, by others or by themselves, primarily on the basis of cultural or nationality characteristics. ethnicity The cultural heritage or identity of a group based on factors such as language or country of origin. ethnocentric Characterized by the attitude that one's own culture is superior to those of others. ethnocentrism The belief in the superiority of one's own culture compared with that of others. ethnography A detailed study of the life and activities of a group of people by researchers who may live with that group over a period of years. ethnomethodology The study of the commonsense knowledge that people use to understand the situations in which they find themselves. experiment A research method involving a carefully designed situation in which the researcher studies the impact of certain variables on subjects' attitudes or behaviour. experimental group A research method involving a carefully designed situation in which the researcher studies the impact of certain variables on subjects' attitudes or behaviour. extended family A family unit composed of relatives in addition to parents and children who live in the same household. F 22 23 false consciousness The term used by Karl Marx to indicate that people hold beliefs they think promote their best interests when those beliefs actually are damaging to their interests. family A relationship in which people live together with commitment, form an economic unit and care for any young, and consider their identity to be significantly attached to the group. fashion A currently valued style of behaviour, thinking, or appearance that is longer lasting and more widespread than a fad. feminism The belief that all people—both women and men—are equal and that they should be valued equally and have equal rights. feminization of poverty The trend in which women are disproportionately represented among individuals living in poverty. functionalist perspective The sociological approach that views society as a stable, orderly system. G gender The culturally and socially constructed meanings, beliefs, and practices associated with sex differences. gender bias Behaviour that shows favouritism toward one gender over the other. gender identity A person's perception of the self as female or male. gender role Attitudes, behaviour, and activities that are socially defined as appropriate for each sex and are learned through the socialization process. gender socialization The aspect of socialization that contains specific messages and practices concerning the nature of being female or male in a specific group or society. H Hawthorne effect A term used in research to describe changes in the subjects' behaviour caused by the researcher's presence or by the subjects' awareness of being studied. 23 24 hidden curriculum The transmission of cultural values and attitudes, such as conformity and obedience to authority, through implied demands found in rules, routines, and regulations of schools. hypothesis In research studies, a tentative statement of the relationship between two or more concepts or variables. I id Sigmund Freud's term for the component of personality that includes all of the individual's basic biological drives and needs that demand immediate gratification. ideal type An abstract model that describes the recurring characteristics of some phenomenon. immigration The movement of people into a geographic area to take up residency. independent variable A variable that is presumed to cause or determine a dependent variable. inductive approach Research in which the investigator collects information or data (facts or evidence) and then generates theories from the analysis of that data. institutional racism A term used to describe the rules, procedures, and practices that directly and deliberately prevent minorities from having full and equal involvement in society. interactionist perspective The sociological approach that views society as the sum of the interactions of individuals and groups. intragenerational mobility The social movement (upward or downward) experienced by family members from one generation to the next. interview A research method using a data collection encounter in which an interviewer asks the respondent questions and records the answers. J juvnile delinquency The violation of a law or the commission of a status offence by young people less than a specific age. K 24 25 kinship A social network of people based on common ancestry, marriage, or adoption. L labelling theory The proposition that deviants are those people who have been successfully labelled as such by others. language A system of symbols that express ideas and enable people to think and communicate with one another. laws Formal, standardized norms that have been enacted by legislatures and are enforced by formal sanctions. life chances Max Weber's term for the extent to which persons within a particular layer of stratification have access to important scarce resources. life expectancy The average length of time a group of individuals of the same age will live. looking-glass self Charles Horton Cooley's term for the way in which a person's sense of self is derived from the perceptions of others. M macrolevel analysis Sociological theory and research that focuses on whole societies, large-scale social structures, and social systems. majority (dominant) group An advantaged group that has superior resources and rights in a society. marriage A legally recognized and/or socially approved arrangement between two or more individuals that carries certain rights and obligations and usually involves sexual activity. master status A term used to describe the most important status a person occupies. material culture A component of culture that consists of the physical or tangible creations (such as clothing, shelter, and art) that members of a society make, use, and share. matriarchal family A family structure in which authority is held by the eldest female (usually the mother). 25 26 matriarchy A hierarchical system of social organization in which cultural, political, and economic structures are controlled by women. matrilineal descent A system of tracing descent through the mother's side of the family. means of production Karl Marx's term for tools, land, factories, and money for investment that form the economic basis of a society. meritocracy A social system in which status is assumed to be acquired through individual ability and effort. microlevel analysis Sociological theory and research that focuses on small groups rather than large-scale social structures. migration The movement of people from one geographic area to another for the purpose of changing residency. minority (subordinate) group A disadvantaged group whose members, because of physical or cultural characteristics, are subjected to unequal treatment by the dominant group and who regard themselves as objects of collective discrimination. monogamy Marriage between two partners, usually a woman and a man. N norms Established rules of behaviour or standards of conduct. nuclear family A family comprised of one or two parents and their dependent children, all of whom live apart from other relatives. O objective Free from distorted subjective (personal or emotional) bias. occupation A category of jobs that involve similar activities at different work sites. P participant observation A research method in which researchers collect systematic observations while being part of the activities of the group they are studying. 26 27 patriarchal family A family structure in which authority is held by the eldest male (usually the father). patriarchy A hierarchical system of social organization in which cultural, political, and economic structures are controlled by men. peer group A group of people who are linked by common interests, equal social position, and (usually) similar age. perspective An overall approach to or viewpoint on some subject. photojournalism The use of photographs and text to tell a better story than either could tell alone. political party An organization whose purpose is to gain and hold legitimate control of government. polyandry The concurrent marriage of one woman with two or more men. polygamy The concurrent marriage of a person of one sex with two or more members of the opposite sex. polygyny The concurrent marriage of one man with two or more women. popular culture The component of culture that consists of activities, products, and services that are assumed to appeal primarily to members of the middle and working classes. population In a research study, those persons about whom we want to be able to draw conclusions. positivism A belief that the world can best be understood through scientific inquiry. power According to Max Weber, the ability of people or groups to achieve their goals despite opposition from others. prejudice A negative attitude based on faulty generalizations about members of selected racial and ethnic groups. presentation of self Erving Goffman's term for people's efforts to present themselves to others in ways that are most favourable to their own interests or image. proletariat (working class) Karl Marx's term for those who must sell their labour because they have no other means to earn a livelihood. 27 28 Q qualitative research Sociological research methods that use interpretive description (words) rather than statistics (numbers) to analyze underlying meanings and patterns of social relationships. quantitative research Sociological research methods that are based on the goal of scientific objectivity and focus on data that can be measured numerically. questionnaire A printed research instrument containing a series of items to which subjects respond. R race A category of people who have been singled out as inferior or superior, often on the basis of physical characteristics such as skin colour, hair texture, and eye shape. racism An organized set of beliefs about the innate inferiority of some racial groups, combined with the power to transform these ideas into practices that can deny or exclude equality of treatment on the basis of race. random sample A selection in which everyone in the target population has an equal chance of being chosen; in other words, choice occurs by chance. reliability In sociological research, the extent to which a study or research instrument yields consistent results. religion A system of beliefs, symbols, and rituals, based on some sacred or supernatural realm, that guides human behaviour, gives meaning to life, and unites believers into a community. representative sample A selection from a larger population that has the essential characteristics of the total population. research method A strategy or technique for systematically conducting research. respondent A person who provides data for analysis through an interview or questionnaire. ritual A symbolic action that represents religious meanings. 28 29 role A set of behavioural expectations associated with a given status. role conflict A situation in which incompatible role demands are placed on a person by two or more statuses held at the same time. S sample The people who are selected from the population to be studied. sanction A reward for appropriate behaviour or a penalty for inappropriate behaviour. secondary analysis A research method in which researchers use existing material and analyze data that originally was collected by others. secularization The process by which religious beliefs, practices, and institutions lose their significance in sectors of society and culture. segregation A term used to describe the spatial and social separation of categories of people by race/ethnicity, class, gender, and/or religion. self-fulfilling prophecy A situation in which a false belief or prediction produces behaviour that makes the originally false belief come true.. sex A term used to describe the biological and anatomical differences between females and males. sexism The subordination of one sex, usually female, based on the assumed superiority of the other sex. sexual orientation A person's preference for emotional–sexual relationships with members of the opposite sex (heterosexuality), the same sex (homosexuality), or both sexes (bisexuality). social change The alteration, modification, or transformation of public policy, culture, or social institutions over time. social construction of reality The process by which our perception of reality is shaped largely by the subjective meaning that we give to an experience. social control Systematic practices developed by social groups to encourage conformity and to discourage deviance. 29 30 social Darwinism Herbert Spencer's belief that those species of animals—including human beings—best adapted to the environment survive and prosper while those poorly adapted die out. social group A group that consists of two or more people who interact frequently and share a common identity and a feeling of interdependence. social institution A set of organized beliefs and rules that establish how a society will attempt to meet its basic social needs. social interaction The process by which people act toward or respond to other people. social mobility The movement of individuals or groups from one level in a stratification system to another. social stratification The hierarchical arrangement of large social groups based on their control over basic resources. social structure The stable pattern of social relationships that exist within a particular group or society. socialization The lifelong process of social interaction through which individuals acquire a self-identity and the physical, mental, and social skills needed for survival in society. societal consensus A situation whereby the majority of members share a common set of values, beliefs, and behavioural expectations. society A large social grouping that shares the same geographical territory and is subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. sociobiology The systematic study of how biology affects social behaviour. socioeconomic status (SES) A combined measure that attempts to classify individuals, families, or households in terms of indicators such as income, occupation, and education. sociological imagination C. Wright Mills's term for the ability to see the relationship between individual experiences and the larger society. sociology The systematic study of human society and social interactions. 30 31 sociology of family The subdiscipline of sociology that attempts to describe and explain patterns of family life and variations in family structure. status A socially defined position in a group or society characterized by certain expectations, rights, and duties. stigma According to Erving Goffman, any physical or social attribute or sign that so devalues a person's social identity that it disqualifies that person from full social acceptance. subculture A group of people who share a distinctive set of cultural beliefs and behaviours that differ in some significant way from that of the larger society. survey A research method in which a questionnaire or interview is used by researchers to gather facts or determine the relationship between facts. symbol A research method in which a questionnaire or interview is used by researchers to gather facts or determine the relationship between facts. systemic racism A term used to describe practices that have a harmful impact on subordinate group members even though the organizationally prescribed norms or regulations guiding these actions initially were established with no intent to harm. T theory A set of logically interrelated statements that attempts to describe, explain, and (occasionally) predict social events. transsexual A person who believes that he or she was born with the body of the wrong sex. transvestite A male who lives as a woman or a female who lives as a man but does not alter the genitalia. U unstructured interview A research method involving an extended, openended interaction between an interviewer and an interviewee. V 31 32 validity In sociological research, the extent to which a study or research instrument accurately measures what it is supposed to measure. value A collective idea about what is right or wrong, good or bad, and desirable or undesirable in a particular culture. variable In sociological research, any concept with measurable traits or characteristics that can change or vary from one person, time, situation, or society to another. W wealth The value of all of a person's or family's economic assets, including income, personal property, and income-producing property. 32