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AS Sociology
Course Handbook
2009-10
Tutors: Dave Aiken
Sonia Jacob and Chrissy Vesey
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Welcome to AS Sociology at
Haringey Sixth Form Centre…
And congratulations on your success in gaining a place at
Haringey Sixth Form Centre.
This handbook aims to provide you with an introduction to the
subject and the facilities and resources available to you.
It includes information on the structure of the course and
assessment, study skills, reading lists and the staff (where and
when you can find them). We will be using this booklet
throughout the course, but especially in the first few weeks, so
keep it at the front of your folder.
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Contents…
Welcome
Contents
Staff
What is Sociology?
Aims and objectives
Course structure
Assessment
What can I do with my AS
Calendar
Study Skills
Reading list and web info
Sociology Glossary
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p.3
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P.4
p.6
p.7-10
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p.12
p.13
p.14
p.18
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Staff…
You will be taught by one of three tutors (Dave Aiken, Sonia
Jacob & Chrissy Vesey), although other members of the
department will be able to help you with your work in the Study
Centre.
We are based in the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences
on the first floor. The best way of contacting us is by e mail:
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
We also have a Faculty Learning Mentor who will be based in
the Study Centre. The learning mentor’s role is to help you with
your studies and make sure that you have access to all the
resources you need. The study centre has a good stock of
Sociology textbooks and there are even more in the Learning
Resource Centre as well as useful periodicals like Sociology
Review and the New Statesman.
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What is Sociology?
The 6 billion people on earth are members of a single biological
species: Homo sapiens. But there are striking differences
among the world's people. The Chinese wear white at funerals
while people in the United Kingdom prefer black. People in
England say a watch "runs" while the Spanish say it "walks"
and the Germans say it "functions." Most people in England
kiss in public, the Chinese kiss only in private; the French kiss
publicly twice (once on each cheek), while the Belgians kiss
three times (starting on either cheek); the New Zealand Maoris
rub noses and, for their part, few Nigerians kiss at all.
The world over, people wear much or little clothing, are
peaceful or warlike, enjoy different kinds of art and music and
hold different religious beliefs. We may be the same people
biologically, but we differ in our tastes, behaviours and beliefs.
These differences are called cultural differences. The study of
how
people
live
is
the
discipline
of
Sociology.
Sociology is the study of how human societies shape the lives of
the people who live in them. People make lots of decisions in
the course of living every day. But we make these decisions
within the context of "society;" our family, school, nation and
the larger world.
Are you curious about why things are as they are?
Do you want to make the world a better place?
Are you a people watcher who enjoys seeing what others do
and how they react to various situations?
Are you fascinated by the customs and cultures of people who
differ from you?
If you answered "yes" to most of these questions, you may have
what it takes to become a sociologist!
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What should you expect from studying sociology?
Most people who begin are excited to find how different the
world looks when viewed sociologically. Our way of life loses its
"taken for granted" quality and comes alive with questions
about "How?" "Why?" and "For whom?" I am passionate about
sociology mostly because it is fun to do. It opens your mind and
provides answers where you did not even realize there were
questions!
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Aims and objectives of the course
By studying AS Sociology you will:
 Develop a knowledge and understanding of the way
society works and of how the members of society
interact with each other;
 Use sociological theories to explain social problems
and issues such as crime, education, inequality and
poverty;
 Develop an understanding of the methods used by
sociologists to find out about the social world;
 Reflect on your own experience of the social world in
which we live;
 Develop skills which you will be able to use in other
subjects and in your wider social life;
 Be able to apply your knowledge of sociology to
everyday life and, as a result, become more aware of
the many ways in which we are all different.
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Course structure
Week
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Topic
Introduction
Induction – What is Sociology? How do
we find things out? (Introduction to
research methods)
The formation of culture.
The Process of Socialisation –
Nature/nurture, norms, values, etc.
Introduction to key concepts for Research
methods and ‘two sociologies’
Theoretical ideas in brief, Functionalist,
Marxist Action theory and feminism
FAMILY
Introduction to the Family – key concepts,
types of family.
Functions of the family.
Trends in family life – marriage, marital
breakdown, divorce, co-habitation,
voluntary childlessness, etc.
Related Studies/method
Family Diversity
New Right view of the family.
Post-modern view of the family.
The Family – In decline or just changing?
Social policy and the family.
Rapoport & Rapoport
Dennis & Erdos
Valerie Riches
Gershuny – Standards of Parenting
Gittins – familial ideology
Roles and Relationships in the family
Feminist explanations of family life.
Roles and Relationships in the family
Childhood – changing position of children
Sociological explanations of family life –
how functional is the family? Marxist
explanations & Dark Side of the Family
Demographic changes and the family - the
future of the family.
An ageing population. Dual-earner
households, singlehood, choice.
Postmodern approaches to the family.
Oakley – Housewife
Benston
Aries, Postman, Lees
MOCK EXAMS
What is research?
Research Key Terms
 Types of data i.e. primary vs. Secondary;
Quantitative vs. Qualitative)
Exam prep activities
Group Work: investigation of
different hypotheses to address
research issues (sampling, ethics,
practical, values):-
Ik tribe – how would we find out
about them?
Shirbit culture
Genie – Wild Child
Parsons
Draw society, identify, structures,
processes and interaction
Matching exercises
Parsons
Fletcher
Social Change, Family formation &
kin relationships - Charles
Beck & Beck-Gernsheim, Hart,
Chandler, Burgoyne & Clarke
The secularisation of Weddings Walliss
Laing, Nazroo, Ghate et al
Cheal, Stacey
Choosing Childlessness –
McAllister & Clarke.
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

Sampling
Quality of data- (reliability and validity)
 P.E.R.V.E.R.T.S - Factors which influence
the research process
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a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
Researching pupils
Researching teachers
Researching classrooms
Researching schools
Researching parents
Researching a state system?
 Applying the use of each research method
to the study of education e.g. using
experiments/ questionnaires, interviews etc to
study observation: - what issues will we face?
16.
 Experiments (lab and field
 Using experiments to investigate education
as part of evaluation (do MIC questions after
Education)
 Questionnaires
 Using questionnaires to investigate
education as part of evaluation (do MIC

All teens carry knives; Boys
fancy only skinny girls; Teens
watch too many reality TV
shows; All teens are obsessed
with their looks; Most teens are
members of gangs today
 Sorting Exercises
 Use of skittles and images to
illustrate sampling methods
 ‘Favourite music’ activity
 Use of traffic light cards
according to factor
Hypothesis: education related.
Similar activity to week 1
introduction
Group work
o Compare context to another
random group e.g. pupils vs.
inmates!
o Posters
o Temping adverts for that
research group e.g. students
wanted, they must…..
o Role plays
o Agree/ disagree statements
about that group
o Eye witness testimony –
what would your
observation notes look like?
o Put yourself in the position
of those people being
researched… write a letter of
complaint!
Conduct own mini pieces of
research? What went well?
– Did you have any problems?
– How would you overcome
those problems?
– Can you trust the
information you have
gathered to make a general
statement about society?
 Designing experiments
Explore issues that need to be
considered…
 Questionnaires: designing and
conducting themselves
 Role Play: interviews (good vs.
bad)
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17.
18.
questions after Education)
 Interviews (structured/ unstructured)
 Using interviews to investigate education
as part of evaluation(do MIC questions after
Education)
 Using observations to investigate
education as part of evaluation(do MIC
questions after Education)

 Official statistics
 Using statistics to investigate education as
part of evaluation
 Manipulation of league tables (do MIC
questions after Education)
 Qualitative documents i.e. letters, diaries,
autobiographies etc.
 Content Analysis
 Using qualitative documents to investigate
education as part of evaluation


What is / are / ought to be the function/s of
education?
Sorting exercise with reasons for
introduction of compulsory state
education
Types of schooling Independent/
maintained/ Primary / secondary /
further/ HE / private training
providers
Teaching and learning
Hidden curriculum
Pupil/ teacher relationships
Subcultures
Link to ethnicity, gender,
achievement etc
Stereotyping, labelling, selffulfilling prophecy, also
streaming/setting – Interactionist
approaches
Marxist. Bowles and Gintis,
ideological state apparatus
Home/school
Cultural deprivation.
Racism in schools
Ethnocentrism
School policy
Anti-racist education
Home/school factors
Relative ‘over’ achievement of some
ethnic groups
How does the experience of
19.
What different types of schools/educational
institutions are there?
20.
What happens in schools?
What subcultures exist within schools?
21.
How do processes within schools affect
individuals?
22.
23.
24.
How do we explain differential
achievement between classes?
(preparing for synoptic option on wealth
and poverty)
How do schools transmit national and
ethnic identities?
How do we explain differential
achievement between ethnic groups?
(preparing for synoptic option on
differentiation)
How do schools transmit femininity and





Interviewing techniques: Ali G/
Parkinson
Secret Policeman
Big Brother Clips
Mix and match activities
Presentations via different
learning styles e.g. reporters,
rappers, examiners, new way of
improving… (intelligent soc’s),
teachers etc
Processes CJS statistics
Studying old documents e.g. war
diaries etc
Studying a selection of
magazines
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masculinity?
How can we explain differential
achievement between boys and girls?
25.
How have political decisions shaped
schooling?
What are the main features of the school
system today?
26.
What is the relationship between education
/ schooling and work / the economy?
What is the role of further and higher
education?
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
Mopping up
Revision
Revision
Revision
START OF EXAMS
education differ for girls and boys?
Evidence of differential attainment
Reasons for differential attainment
Historical overview 1870 –1979
including Butler, comprehensives,
failure to abolish independents
Historical overview 1979 to present
including vocationalism, National
Curriculum, 1988 ERA, increasing
participation, inclusivity etc
Competition, choice, league tables
C2K, 14-19 Green Paper
Impact of new technologies on
teaching and learning
Correspondence theory,
vocationalism
Present and future of FE and HE,
including participation
and lifelong learning
Assessment
While studying AS Sociology, you will be assessed using the
Assessment Objectives specified in the syllabus – you can find
a description of these in the Study Skills section of this booklet.
Assessment will be used as a way of helping you to improve,
rather than just a methods of indicating how you are doing. So,
before completing each assessment activity, you will need to
look at your last piece of feedback and think about the targets
you were given. When this is a piece of written work, you must
write the targets on the top of your piece of work!
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We will be using a number of methods to assess your progress:
Extended writing
Powerpoint presentations
Web-page design
Use of media, e.g. radio documentaries, drama, video, etc
Presentations
Practice exam questions
You will also be expected to assess your own work and that of
your peers. Peer-marking is an excellent way of learning what
the examiner expects of you and it will be a regular feature of
the course.
Key Skills
Through your Sociology course, some of you will also be
completing work towards your Key Skills Qualifications. Key
Skills are a qualification that ensure that all students have
developed essential skills in IT, Communication and Application
of Number. During your sociology course, you will be asked to
complete some pieces of work to put in your Key Skills
portfolio. These would all be pieces of work that you would do
anyway, but they will be marked according to different criteria.
What can I do with an AS level in Sociology?
Most of you will progress to A2 Sociology and study topics such
as Crime, Education and Social Inequality. We look at exciting
social problems and issues such as:
 Why are girls improving at a faster rate than boys in
education?
 In wealthy countries like Britain and the US, why does a
large percentage of the population live in poverty?
 Why are young black men eight times more likely to be
stopped and searched than young white men?
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Your A level in Sociology will equip you with many skills that
you can use in other subjects and in other areas of your life.
Most degree courses include some Sociology:
Medicine & Nursing – the Sociology of Health
History – Social and economic history
English – the social context of novels, feminism in the novel, the
development of language
There are also many degree courses where your A level in
Sociology will be really helpful, if not essential:
Sociology
Social Policy and Administration
Criminology
Cultural Studies
Law
American Studies
Psychology
Anthropology
Sociology also opens doors to many areas of employment:
Social researcher, Counsellor, Community worker, Probation
Officer, Social worker, Charity fundraiser, Primary or
Secondary school teacher, FE Lecturer, Retail Manager, Local
Councillor, Journalist, TV researcher, Political researcher,
Police Officer or even an agent for MI5!
Study Skills
Sociology has become very skills orientated. Examiners stress
the importance of Sociology students developing two skill
domains. Your ability to demonstrate these skills will determine
your grades for coursework and the exams. These skills will
also benefit other subjects.
The skills are called Assessment Objectives.
Assessment Objective 1 (AO1)
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The examiners are looking for your ability to demonstrate
KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING of sociological theories,
studies, concepts and methods of enquiry.
To gain marks for this AO, you need to:
o Recall the names of sociologists
o Use sociologists’ theories
o Use sociological concepts – key ideas and be able to
define them
o Use evidence to support theories
o Understand the methods used to gain evidence to support
theories and reasons for selecting them
o Be able to communicate the above in a coherent
argument, selecting relevant information to answer the
question set.
Your spelling, grammar and punctuation are also taken into
account within this assessment objective. Poor spelling or
punctuation can stop you from getting the highest grades
available.
Assessment Objective 2 (AO2)
Here, examiners are looking for you to demonstrate your skills
of IDENTIFICATION, ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION AND
EVALUATION. You must show that you can select and apply a
range of concepts and theories, interpret quantitative and
qualitative data, identify and evaluate social trends, evaluate
different theories, arguments and evidence. You must present
your arguments in an organised, coherent manner, well
communicated, displaying an awareness of theoretical debates
in sociology using evidence to support and sustain arguments
and conclusions.
For this assessment objective you will need to show that you
can:
o Use you knowledge and understanding to identify trends
in data
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o Analyse the information and break it down into its
constituent parts – looking for areas neglected and
assumptions made, logical coherence in the argument
o Interpret, i.e. select from your body of knowledge the
‘bits’ or versions that best suit the question
o Evaluate, i.e. weigh up the strengths and weaknesses of
approaches – ask awkward questions and take nothing for
granted – pick to bits the approaches offered by
competing sociologists
o Ask how evidence was gathered, when it was gathered,
i.e. can it explain the present?
Can it be
checked/repeated? Is the approach theoretically biased?
Have ethnicity, class and gender been taken into
account?
o What are the good ‘bits’? What are the bad ‘bits’? Take
the role of the judge and jury – hear the competing claims,
consider the evidence, decide which is the most
convincing, explain why, give you verdict justifying your
choice.
Teaching and Learning styles
Sociology employs a variety of teaching and learning styles.
For example, we will use discussion and debate, study guides,
videos, groupwork, drama, music and student presentations.
Should you have any difficulty understanding and you feel that
the teacher is unaware of this, it is vital you tell the teacher that
you are having problems. You will also be given the opportunity
to go to Student Conferences. All students are expected to
make regular use of the Learning Resource Centre and the
resources in the study centre.
Study guidelines
Sociology will require a lot of commitment from you. It is
recommended that you spend 5 hours a week outside lesson
time on Sociology private study. Clearly the demands will vary
according to how much work is set. It is vital that you develop
good study habits at this stage
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Organization
This is the key to being a successful student.
How to be organized:
a) Number and date all your notes and handouts to keep
them in order
b) Keep a separate file for each major sociological area
c) Take responsibility for catching up if you miss a lesson.
Find the resources that you missed on the VLE and also
photocopy a friend’s notes.
d) Check the relevant section in the textbooks and make
extra concise notes if it improves your understanding. If
you don’t feel confident about a particular area, consult
your teacher.
e) If you do find that you are having problems understanding
some of what is covered, make sure that you attend
subject tutorials regularly.
Reading
On any Sociology course you will be expected to undertake a
lot of wider reading. This includes textbooks, books that are
entirely about the topics you are studying, magazine articles,
newspapers, etc. An important skill in Sociology is the ability to
pick out the most relevant bits. You must keep up to date with
Current Affairs – read the paper, watch the news and bring in
any interesting articles you find.
Reading list and useful websites
The main textbook we will be using is:
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Sociology AS Level for AQA
Moore, Chapman & Aiken
Sociology AS – the complete course for the AQA specification
Webb et al
But you can dip into the rest:
Sociology Themes and Perspectives: AS and A-level Student
Handbook
Haralambos & Holborn
Sociology in Focus for AQAAS level
Haralambos, Richardson, Pilkington & Taylor
Heinemann Sociology for AQA: AS student handbook
Czerniawski, Kidd & Abbott
Investigating Families
N. Jorgenson
Families
D. Leonard
How to do Social Research
Dunsmuir & Hood Williams
Doing Sociology
Harvey & MacDonald
Research Methods
McNeill & Chapman
A-Z Sociology handbook
Lawson & Garrod
Readings in Sociology
W. Kidd et al
Sociology since 1995
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Blundell & Griffiths
And some useful websites:
The best way of accessing the resources online is to visit
www.sociology.org.uk and use the links page to find the site
you want.
Other good sites include:
http://www.educationforum.co.uk/sociology_2/a1a2.htm – this
is the website for Dartford Technology College – follow the links
to the area you need
www.s-cool.co.uk – this site has some useful revision
summaries
http://www.ngfl-cymru.org.uk/vtc-home/vtc-post-16-home/vtcas_sociology.htm - Bryn Hafryn School site. It offers materials,
study skills guidance and resources for students of sociology at
GCSE and A Level. There are powerpoint presentations, pdf
files and quiz shows
www.longroad.ac.uk – Quite a good revision section – very
good if you’re doing Psychology!
http://www.freewebs.com/bpsnotes/sociology.htm -This is a
site from an Advanced level student, with access to his notes.
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Sociology Glossary
A
absolute poverty A level of economic deprivation in which people do not
have the means to secure the most basic necessities of life.
achieved status A social position that a person assumes voluntarily as a
result of personal choice, merit, or direct effort.
age stratification The inequalities, differences, segregation, or conflict
between age groups.
ageism Prejudice and discrimination against people on the basis of age,
particularly when they are older persons.
agenda-setting The principle that members of the press do not tell people
what to think but do tell people what and whom to think about.
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agents of socialization Those persons, groups, or institutions that teach
people what they need to know in order to participate in society.
alienation A feeling of powerlessness and estrangement from other
people and from oneself.
apartheid The policy of the South African government that required the
separation of the races.
ascribed status A social position that is conferred on a person at birth or
received involuntarily later in life.
assimilation A process by which members of subordinate racial and
ethnic groups become absorbed into the dominant culture.
authority Power that people accept as legitimate rather than coercive.
B
body consciousness How a person perceives and feels about his or her
body; it also includes an awareness of social conditions in society that
contribute to this self-knowledge.
bourgeoisie (or capitalist class) Karl Marx's term for the class comprised
of those who own and control the means of production.
bureaucracy An organizational model characterized by a hierarchy of
authority, a clear division of labour, explicit rules and procedures, and
impersonality in personnel matters.
C
capitalism An economic system characterized by private ownership of
the means of production, from which personal profits can be derived
through market competition and without government intervention.
caste system A system of social inequality in which people's status is
permanently determined at birth based on their parents' ascribed
characteristics.
category A number of people who may never have met one another but
who share a similar characteristic.
class The relative location of a person or group within a larger society,
based on wealth, power, prestige, or other valued resources.
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class conflict Karl Marx's term for the struggle between the capitalist
class and the working class.
class system A type of stratification based on the ownership and control
of resources and on the kinds of work people do.
cohabitation The sharing of a household by a couple who live together
without being legally married.
cohort A category of people who are born within a specified period in
time or who share some specified characteristic in common.
collective behaviour Voluntary, often spontaneous, activity that is
engaged in by a large number of people and typically violates dominant
group norms and values.
conflict perspective The sociological approach that views groups in
society as engaged in a continuous power struggle for control of scarce
resources.
conformity The process of maintaining or changing behaviour to comply
with the norms established by a society, subculture, or other group.
content analysis The systematic examination of cultural artifacts or
various forms of communication to extract thematic data and draw
conclusions about social life.
control group Subjects in an experiment who are not exposed to the
independent variable but later are compared to subjects in the
experimental group.
correlation A relationship that exists when two (or more) variables are
associated more frequently than could be expected by chance.
counterculture A group that strongly rejects dominant societal values
and norms and seeks alternative lifestyles. .
crime Behaviour that violates criminal law and is punishable with fines,
jail terms, and other sanctions.
cultural capital Pierre Bourdieu's term for people's social assets,
including their values, beliefs, attitudes, and competencies in language
and culture.
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culture The knowledge, language, values, customs, and material objects
that are passed from person to person and from one generation to the
next in a human group or society.
D
deductive approach Research in which the investigator begins with a
theory and then collects information and data to test the theory.
democracy A political system in which people hold the ruling power,
either directly or indirectly.
dependent variable A variable that is assumed to depend on or be
caused by one or more other (independent) variables.
descriptive study Research that attempts to describe social reality or
provide detailed facts about some group, practice, or event.
deviance Any behaviour, belief, or condition that violates cultural norms.
disability A physical or health condition that stigmatizes or causes
discrimination.
discrimination Actions or practices of dominant group members (or their
representatives) that have a harmful impact on members of a subordinate
group.
domestic partnership A household partnership in which an unmarried
couple lives together in a committed, sexually intimate relationship and is
granted the same benefits as those accorded to married heterosexual
couples.
dual-earner marriage Marriage in which both spouses are in the labour
force.
dysfunctions A term referring to the undesirable consequences of any
element of a society.
E
economy The social institution that ensures the maintenance of society
through the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and
services.
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education The social institution responsible for the systematic
transmission of knowledge, skills, and cultural values within a formally
organized structure.
egalitarian family A family structure in which both partners share power
and authority equally.
ego According to Sigmund Freud, the rational, reality-oriented
component of personality that imposes restrictions on the innate
pleasure-seeking drives of the id.
empirical approach Research that attempts to answer questions through
a systematic collection and analysis of data.
ethnic group A collection of people distinguished, by others or by
themselves, primarily on the basis of cultural or nationality
characteristics.
ethnicity The cultural heritage or identity of a group based on factors
such as language or country of origin.
ethnocentric Characterized by the attitude that one's own culture is
superior to those of others.
ethnocentrism The belief in the superiority of one's own culture
compared with that of others.
ethnography A detailed study of the life and activities of a group of
people by researchers who may live with that group over a period of
years.
ethnomethodology The study of the commonsense knowledge that
people use to understand the situations in which they find themselves.
experiment A research method involving a carefully designed situation in
which the researcher studies the impact of certain variables on subjects'
attitudes or behaviour.
experimental group A research method involving a carefully designed
situation in which the researcher studies the impact of certain variables
on subjects' attitudes or behaviour.
extended family A family unit composed of relatives in addition to parents
and children who live in the same household.
F
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false consciousness The term used by Karl Marx to indicate that people
hold beliefs they think promote their best interests when those beliefs
actually are damaging to their interests.
family A relationship in which people live together with commitment, form
an economic unit and care for any young, and consider their identity to be
significantly attached to the group.
fashion A currently valued style of behaviour, thinking, or appearance
that is longer lasting and more widespread than a fad.
feminism The belief that all people—both women and men—are equal and
that they should be valued equally and have equal rights.
feminization of poverty The trend in which women are disproportionately
represented among individuals living in poverty.
functionalist perspective The sociological approach that views society as
a stable, orderly system.
G
gender The culturally and socially constructed meanings, beliefs, and
practices associated with sex differences.
gender bias Behaviour that shows favouritism toward one gender over
the other.
gender identity A person's perception of the self as female or male.
gender role Attitudes, behaviour, and activities that are socially defined
as appropriate for each sex and are learned through the socialization
process.
gender socialization The aspect of socialization that contains specific
messages and practices concerning the nature of being female or male in
a specific group or society.
H
Hawthorne effect A term used in research to describe changes in the
subjects' behaviour caused by the researcher's presence or by the
subjects' awareness of being studied.
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hidden curriculum The transmission of cultural values and attitudes,
such as conformity and obedience to authority, through implied demands
found in rules, routines, and regulations of schools.
hypothesis In research studies, a tentative statement of the relationship
between two or more concepts or variables.
I
id Sigmund Freud's term for the component of personality that includes
all of the individual's basic biological drives and needs that demand
immediate gratification.
ideal type An abstract model that describes the recurring characteristics
of some phenomenon.
immigration The movement of people into a geographic area to take up
residency.
independent variable A variable that is presumed to cause or determine
a dependent variable.
inductive approach Research in which the investigator collects
information or data (facts or evidence) and then generates theories from
the analysis of that data.
institutional racism A term used to describe the rules, procedures, and
practices that directly and deliberately prevent minorities from having full
and equal involvement in society.
interactionist perspective The sociological approach that views society
as the sum of the interactions of individuals and groups.
intragenerational mobility The social movement (upward or downward)
experienced by family members from one generation to the next.
interview A research method using a data collection encounter in which
an interviewer asks the respondent questions and records the answers.
J
juvnile delinquency The violation of a law or the commission of a status
offence by young people less than a specific age.
K
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kinship A social network of people based on common ancestry,
marriage, or adoption.
L
labelling theory The proposition that deviants are those people who have
been successfully labelled as such by others.
language A system of symbols that express ideas and enable people to
think and communicate with one another.
laws Formal, standardized norms that have been enacted by legislatures
and are enforced by formal sanctions.
life chances Max Weber's term for the extent to which persons within a
particular layer of stratification have access to important scarce
resources.
life expectancy The average length of time a group of individuals of the
same age will live.
looking-glass self Charles Horton Cooley's term for the way in which a
person's sense of self is derived from the perceptions of others.
M
macrolevel analysis Sociological theory and research that focuses on
whole societies, large-scale social structures, and social systems.
majority (dominant) group An advantaged group that has superior
resources and rights in a society.
marriage A legally recognized and/or socially approved arrangement
between two or more individuals that carries certain rights and
obligations and usually involves sexual activity.
master status A term used to describe the most important status a
person occupies.
material culture A component of culture that consists of the physical or
tangible creations (such as clothing, shelter, and art) that members of a
society make, use, and share.
matriarchal family A family structure in which authority is held by the
eldest female (usually the mother).
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matriarchy A hierarchical system of social organization in which cultural,
political, and economic structures are controlled by women.
matrilineal descent A system of tracing descent through the mother's
side of the family.
means of production Karl Marx's term for tools, land, factories, and
money for investment that form the economic basis of a society.
meritocracy A social system in which status is assumed to be acquired
through individual ability and effort.
microlevel analysis Sociological theory and research that focuses on
small groups rather than large-scale social structures.
migration The movement of people from one geographic area to another
for the purpose of changing residency.
minority (subordinate) group A disadvantaged group whose members,
because of physical or cultural characteristics, are subjected to unequal
treatment by the dominant group and who regard themselves as objects
of collective discrimination.
monogamy Marriage between two partners, usually a woman and a man.
N
norms Established rules of behaviour or standards of conduct.
nuclear family A family comprised of one or two parents and their
dependent children, all of whom live apart from other relatives.
O
objective Free from distorted subjective (personal or emotional) bias.
occupation A category of jobs that involve similar activities at different
work sites.
P
participant observation A research method in which researchers collect
systematic observations while being part of the activities of the group they
are studying.
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patriarchal family A family structure in which authority is held by the
eldest male (usually the father).
patriarchy A hierarchical system of social organization in which cultural,
political, and economic structures are controlled by men.
peer group A group of people who are linked by common interests, equal
social position, and (usually) similar age.
perspective An overall approach to or viewpoint on some subject.
photojournalism The use of photographs and text to tell a better story
than either could tell alone.
political party An organization whose purpose is to gain and hold
legitimate control of government.
polyandry The concurrent marriage of one woman with two or more men.
polygamy The concurrent marriage of a person of one sex with two or
more members of the opposite sex.
polygyny The concurrent marriage of one man with two or more women.
popular culture The component of culture that consists of activities,
products, and services that are assumed to appeal primarily to members
of the middle and working classes.
population In a research study, those persons about whom we want to be
able to draw conclusions.
positivism A belief that the world can best be understood through
scientific inquiry.
power According to Max Weber, the ability of people or groups to
achieve their goals despite opposition from others.
prejudice A negative attitude based on faulty generalizations about
members of selected racial and ethnic groups.
presentation of self Erving Goffman's term for people's efforts to present
themselves to others in ways that are most favourable to their own
interests or image.
proletariat (working class) Karl Marx's term for those who must sell their
labour because they have no other means to earn a livelihood.
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Q
qualitative research Sociological research methods that use interpretive
description (words) rather than statistics (numbers) to analyze underlying
meanings and patterns of social relationships.
quantitative research Sociological research methods that are based on
the goal of scientific objectivity and focus on data that can be measured
numerically.
questionnaire A printed research instrument containing a series of items
to which subjects respond.
R
race A category of people who have been singled out as inferior or
superior, often on the basis of physical characteristics such as skin
colour, hair texture, and eye shape.
racism An organized set of beliefs about the innate inferiority of some
racial groups, combined with the power to transform these ideas into
practices that can deny or exclude equality of treatment on the basis of
race.
random sample A selection in which everyone in the target population
has an equal chance of being chosen; in other words, choice occurs by
chance.
reliability In sociological research, the extent to which a study or
research instrument yields consistent results.
religion A system of beliefs, symbols, and rituals, based on some sacred
or supernatural realm, that guides human behaviour, gives meaning to
life, and unites believers into a community.
representative sample A selection from a larger population that has the
essential characteristics of the total population.
research method A strategy or technique for systematically conducting
research.
respondent A person who provides data for analysis through an interview
or questionnaire.
ritual A symbolic action that represents religious meanings.
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role A set of behavioural expectations associated with a given status.
role conflict A situation in which incompatible role demands are placed
on a person by two or more statuses held at the same time.
S
sample The people who are selected from the population to be studied.
sanction A reward for appropriate behaviour or a penalty for
inappropriate behaviour.
secondary analysis A research method in which researchers use existing
material and analyze data that originally was collected by others.
secularization The process by which religious beliefs, practices, and
institutions lose their significance in sectors of society and culture.
segregation A term used to describe the spatial and social separation of
categories of people by race/ethnicity, class, gender, and/or religion.
self-fulfilling prophecy A situation in which a false belief or prediction
produces behaviour that makes the originally false belief come true..
sex A term used to describe the biological and anatomical differences
between females and males.
sexism The subordination of one sex, usually female, based on the
assumed superiority of the other sex.
sexual orientation A person's preference for emotional–sexual
relationships with members of the opposite sex (heterosexuality), the
same sex (homosexuality), or both sexes (bisexuality).
social change The alteration, modification, or transformation of public
policy, culture, or social institutions over time.
social construction of reality The process by which our perception of
reality is shaped largely by the subjective meaning that we give to an
experience.
social control Systematic practices developed by social groups to
encourage conformity and to discourage deviance.
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social Darwinism Herbert Spencer's belief that those species of
animals—including human beings—best adapted to the environment
survive and prosper while those poorly adapted die out.
social group A group that consists of two or more people who interact
frequently and share a common identity and a feeling of interdependence.
social institution A set of organized beliefs and rules that establish how a
society will attempt to meet its basic social needs.
social interaction The process by which people act toward or respond to
other people.
social mobility The movement of individuals or groups from one level in a
stratification system to another.
social stratification The hierarchical arrangement of large social groups
based on their control over basic resources.
social structure The stable pattern of social relationships that exist
within a particular group or society.
socialization The lifelong process of social interaction through which
individuals acquire a self-identity and the physical, mental, and social
skills needed for survival in society.
societal consensus A situation whereby the majority of members share a
common set of values, beliefs, and behavioural expectations.
society A large social grouping that shares the same geographical
territory and is subject to the same political authority and dominant
cultural expectations.
sociobiology The systematic study of how biology affects social
behaviour.
socioeconomic status (SES) A combined measure that attempts to
classify individuals, families, or households in terms of indicators such as
income, occupation, and education.
sociological imagination C. Wright Mills's term for the ability to see the
relationship between individual experiences and the larger society.
sociology The systematic study of human society and social interactions.
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sociology of family The subdiscipline of sociology that attempts to
describe and explain patterns of family life and variations in family
structure.
status A socially defined position in a group or society characterized by
certain expectations, rights, and duties.
stigma According to Erving Goffman, any physical or social attribute or
sign that so devalues a person's social identity that it disqualifies that
person from full social acceptance.
subculture A group of people who share a distinctive set of cultural
beliefs and behaviours that differ in some significant way from that of the
larger society.
survey A research method in which a questionnaire or interview is used
by researchers to gather facts or determine the relationship between
facts.
symbol A research method in which a questionnaire or interview is used
by researchers to gather facts or determine the relationship between
facts.
systemic racism A term used to describe practices that have a harmful
impact on subordinate group members even though the organizationally
prescribed norms or regulations guiding these actions initially were
established with no intent to harm.
T
theory A set of logically interrelated statements that attempts to describe,
explain, and (occasionally) predict social events.
transsexual A person who believes that he or she was born with the body
of the wrong sex.
transvestite A male who lives as a woman or a female who lives as a man
but does not alter the genitalia.
U
unstructured interview A research method involving an extended, openended interaction between an interviewer and an interviewee.
V
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validity In sociological research, the extent to which a study or research
instrument accurately measures what it is supposed to measure.
value A collective idea about what is right or wrong, good or bad, and
desirable or undesirable in a particular culture.
variable In sociological research, any concept with measurable traits or
characteristics that can change or vary from one person, time, situation,
or society to another.
W
wealth The value of all of a person's or family's economic assets,
including income, personal property, and income-producing property.
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