Download Bioenergy and biodiversity

Feb 2017
BIOENERGY AND BIODIVERSITY
David Howard
CEH Fellow, Director LEC Centre for Sustainable Energy, Lancaster
With support from friends and colleagues including Jeanette Whitaker,
Rebecca Rowe, Lisa Norton and Bob Bunce at CEH
What am I talking about?
• Who am I?
• What do I mean?
• Why is it important?
• How much do we know?
• Where can we find the answers?
• Which issues are most important?
With thanks to Rudyard Kipling’s ‘Six honest serving men’
1
Feb 2017
Who am I?
David C Howard BA PhD FRES
old
• Yorkshireman
• Studied biology
• Lectured in zoology
• Worked for a NERC research
institute
• Many roles including director of
UKERC, governor of the Joule
Centre, director of LEC’s Centre
for Sustainable Energy
What is Bioenergy?
Wordcloud of internet definitions of ‘bioenergy’
2
Feb 2017
Bioenergy terminology
• Bioenergy, biomass and biofuels
• Feedstock
• 1st, 2nd and 3rd generation fuels
• Bioethanol, biodiesel, biokerosene and biobutanol
• Conversion, decommissioning and reversion
Bioenergy statistics
Biomass 10% world energy supply
(58 EJ, traditional and modern)
Modern bioenergy
2% of world electricity generation
4% of world road transport fuel
UK
Bioenergy = 71% of renewable
energy use (2015)
4.4% of UK electricity
3.3 % road transport fuel
2.4% heat (84% of renewable heat)
3
Feb 2017
What is biodiversity?
Species richness
Genetic diversity
Species diversity
Biological diversity
Taxonomic diversity
All genes, species and ecosystems in a location
Functional diversity
Morphological diversity
Ecological diversity
Habitat diversity
Ecosystem diversity
The variability among living organisms from all sources, including, 'inter alia', terrestrial, marine and aquatic ecosystems and the ecological
complexes of which they are part: this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.
UN Earth Summit 1992
Timelines
1956
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
North Sea Oil and Gas
Bioenergy
Oil Crisis
Energy Crisis
IEA
Founded
IEA
Bioenergy
Gulf War
Me!
UK Bioenergy
EU Biofuels
Strategy
Directive EWP
EU Renewable
EWP
Energy Directive
Doha Amendment Paris Agreement
Arbre PS
failed
UNFCCC
Kyoto Protocol
Wildlife and
Countryside Act
Bern
Convention
EU Birds Directive
BA Biology
PhD
CS
RED II
ILUC
Biodiversity
Biological Diversity
2017
Gallagher Review
UK BAP
Aichi Targets
CRoW Act
CBD Earth Summit
Rio de Janeiro
EU Habitats Directive
Started with
PGCE
ExternE
Lecturer atITE/CEH
Novel crops
Reading
Critical Loads
Wood Energy
CS
CS
CS
Natural Environment &
Rural Communities Act
EU Biodiversity
Strategy
UKERC
Joule Centre
CS
ILUC
ELUM
CS
4
Feb 2017
Why is bioenergy important?
• Drive for alternative energy sources
•
•
•
•
IPCC Climate Change 2001
Environmental protection
Security of supply
Economic success
Improve quality of life
CO2 Concentration in Ice Core Samples and
Projections for Next 100 Years
700
Proj ected
(2100)
650
• Bioenergy crops have a large spatial
footprint
• Spatially variable and dynamic
• Government sees it as part of the solution
• Impacts largely unknown
600
Vostok Record
IPCC IS92a Scenario
Law Dome Record
Mauna Loa Record
550
500
450
CO2
Concentration
400
Current
(2001)
350
300
250
200
150
400,000
300,000
200,000
100,000
0
Years Before Present
-- 1950)
Years(B.P.
Before
Present
Where can we find answers?
• Academic literature!
• Search Web of Science
Terms: bioenergy & biodiversity
Date: 1st February 2017
Papers: 435
• Information on
Who
Where
Funder
Topic, etc
Organisation
Author
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences
34
Haberl H 10
United
States
Department
of
Energy
Doe
34
OTHER
(34)
METEOROLOGY
13% OTHER
ATMOSPHERIC
Jonsell M 10
USA
Michigan State University
SWITZERLANDSCIENCES
22
ENERGY
20% FUELS
PLANT SCIENCES
Wachendorf M 10
United States Department of Agriculture, USDA 19%
18
SCOTLAND
Berndes G
7
BIODIVERSITY
PEOPLES
R CHINA
University of Utrecht
16
CONSERVATION
IRELAND
Buhle L
7
University of Wisconsin Madison
15
ENGINEERING
NORWAY
Dauber J
7
University of Wisconsin System
15
DENMARK
SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY
Erb KH
7
OTHER TOPICS
Helmholtz Association
14
SPAIN
Meehan Td
7
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
13
GERMANY
BRAZIL
GERMANY
Muys B
7
13%
13%
Ufz Helmholtz Center for Environmental Research ENVIRONMENTAL
13
BELGIUM
SCIENCES
ECOLOGY
FORESTRY
Faaij A
6
Universitat Kassel
1317%
AUSTRIA
Gratton C
6
Wageningen University Research Center
13
AUSTRALIA
M
6
BIOTECHNOLOGYInstitut National de laHermy
Recherche Agronomique, INRA
SWEDEN11
ITALY
APPLIED
Landis DA
6
MICROBIOLOGY
FRANCE University of California System
AGRICULTURE
11
14%
16%
NETHERLANDS
ENGLAND
Robertson BA
6
University ofFINLAND
Helsinki CANADA
11
Smith P
6
University of Minnesota System
11
University of Minnesota Twin Cities
11
5
Feb 2017
Most cited
Paper
Tilman, D.; Hill, J. & Lehman, C. (2006) Carbon-negative biofuels from low-input high-diversity grassland biomass
Total
826
Average
68.83
Schroter, D; Cramer, W; Leemans, R; et al (2005) Ecosystem service supply and vulnerability to global change in Europe
660
50.77
Berndes, G; Hoogwijk, M & van den Broek, R (2003) The contribution of biomass in the future global energy supply: a review
of 17 studies
493
28.87
Power, A. G. (2010) Ecosystem services and agriculture: tradeoffs and synergies
341
42.62
Smeets, E. M. W.; Faaij, A. P. C.; Lewandowski, I.M. et al. (2007) A bottom-up assessment and review of global bio-energy
potentials to 2050
248
22.55
Groom, M. J.; Gray, E. M.; Townsend, P. A. (2008) Biofuels and biodiversity: Principles for creating better policies for biofuel
production
184
18.4
Gelfand, I.; Sahajpal, R.; Zhang, X. et al. (2013) Sustainable bioenergy production from marginal lands in the US Midwest
177
35.4
Rowe, R. L.; Street, N. R.; Taylor, G. (2009) Identifying potential environmental impacts of large-scale deployment of dedicated
bioenergy crops in the UK
170
18.89
Alkemade, R.; van Oorschot, M.; Miles, L. et al. (2009) GLOBIO3: A Framework to Investigate Options for Reducing Global
Terrestrial Biodiversity Loss
139
15.44
Smith, P.; Haberl, H.; Popp, Al. et al. (2013) How much land-based greenhouse gas mitigation can be achieved without
compromising food security and environmental goals?
109
21.8
9460
378.4
What’s the relationship between bioenergy and biodiversity?
• Text mining in R
Simple examination
Standard analysis
Latent Dirichlet Allocation
6
Feb 2017
Topics
Management
Emissions
Ecosystem
Monitoring
Use
Crop
Countryside Survey
• Monitoring the state and change of British environment
• Started in 1978
• Uses different approaches
• Includes repeated visits to the same sites
• Used to inform Government policy
7
Feb 2017
CS Field Survey
Countryside Survey, field survey: sampling design
32 environmental strata – GB
45
stratified
random sample
Based on 40 underlying variables including;
climate, location, topography, geology and
human geography classified using ISA to give 32
land classes across Great Britain
Surveys: 1978, 1984, 1990, 2000 & 2007
Vegetation plots
Vegetation plots recorded in each CS square…
current status in 2007
Random
area (X)
plots (5)
Targeted Y
plots (5+n)
Unenclosed
plots (10)
Margin plots
(<=15)
Linear plots
Hedges (10,2)
Streams (3,2)
Roads (3,2)
Boundaries (5)
Arable (5)
8
Feb 2017
Land Cover Map
A map of national land cover based on a Generalised OS
Master Map spatial framework and available as different
products.
Land Cover Map
1990, 2000, 2007, 2017 (2015)
http://www.ceh.ac.uk/services/land-cover-map-2015
Biodiversity monitoring - field survey
Biodiversity monitoring in CS
Habitat diversity
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Sample
based
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Landscape features
Widespread GB habitats, including farmland
(arable and grassland) and upland habitats,
woodland
Landscape features, e.g. Individual trees,
hedgerows and ponds
Plant diversity
Large plots in habitats covering large areas
Smaller plots in small patches of habitat and
alongside linear features (e.g. Roads,
hedges, streamsides)
Ponds and headwater streams
Vegetation plots
Soil & Freshwater
Macroinvertebrates
(& soil microbes)
Freshwater macrophytes
Norton et al. (2012) Journal of Environmental Management 113, 117-127
9
Feb 2017
Interesting biodiversity/farmland facts from CS
•
In 2007 CS captured 68% of UK plant species diversity (not designated as ‘rare’, ‘scarce’ or ‘alien’
(PLANTATT, Hill et al. 2004)
•
The area of lowland grassland and arable habitats
RANKwas between 47-48% of GB habitats across the
time series
2007
1998
1990
Names
•
Lolium perenne
Rye Grass
1
1
1
The majority
of species (94%)
recorded in specific
arable
plots were recorded elsewhere
Holcus lanatus
Yorkshire Fog (grass)
2
3
3
•
5
Climbing species and species of ‘unmanaged’ land were
more frequent than in previous surveys
•
Most common
species
Crataegus monogyna
Arrenatherum elatius
False –oat (grass)
3
2
Urtica dioica
Stinging Nettles
4
6
11
Hawthorn
5
8
9
Agrostis stolonifera
Creeping Bent (grass)
6
4
2
Rubus fruticosa
Bramble
7
13
14
Dactylis glomerata
Cocksfoot (grass)
8
10
8
Agrostis capillaris
Common Bent (grass)
9
5
4
Festuca rubra
Red Fescue (grass)
10
9
7
2007 Headlines - Biodiversity of arable land
•
•
The area of arable land decreased by 9.1% in the UK
between 1998 and 2007, mostly through conversion to
grassland.
Between 1998 and 2007 plant species richness increased in
arable land by 30% in Great Britain.
10
Feb 2017
Do you believe it?
Validation
Estimates of area under different agricultural categories compared to MAFF June Census for 1978 (smallest sample)
10,000,000
Total Grass
Wheat
R² = 0.9965
CS 1978 (ha)
1,000,000
Vegetables
Total Tillage
Potatoes
Mixed grain
Maize
Barley
Fodder crops
Orchards
100,000
Oats
Sugar Beet
Lucerne
Oil seed
10,000
Rye
1,000
1,000
10,000
100,000
1,000,000
10,000,000
MAFF June Census 1977/78 (ha)
Bioenergy studies
• Wood Energy (1986)
• Novel crops (1989)
• ExternE (1996)
• UKERC uses of bioenergy (2008)
• Towards integration of low carbon energy and biodiversity
policies (2012)
• ELUM
11
Feb 2017
Wood energy
• Model of potential energy from standards
(SRF) and coppice (SRC) woodland
• Used Countryside Survey sample squares
• Assessed by foresters
• Filtered and compared with existing land
use
• Weighted, using the ITE Land
Classification to produce national
estimates
• Scenarios developed for different barriers
and drivers
Example scenarios
England
Farming
Conservation
Industry
Howard, D.C., Wadsworth, R.A., Whitaker, J.W., Hughes, N. & Bunce, R.G.H. (2009) The impact of
sustainable energy production on land use in Britain through to 2050. Land Use Policy 26 S284-S292
12
Feb 2017
Coppice woodland
• Visual interpretation by land class
• Interpretation of habitats that change
• Species or stock at risk
Artistic interpretation by Chris Benefield
Woody crops - emissions
Cultivation and
Cultivation and
Harvest
3.03
-1
gC02 eq MJ fuel
(7,5)
Gasification
Gasification
gCO
Feedstock storage
and drying
1.52
15.08
( 4,3)
Emissionform
fromleaf
leaf
Emission
litter
1.34
(1,1)
Co- firing
Co-firing
gCO
Total wood crop
production
4.47
(11,7)
4.47(11,7)
(8,6)
-2.59
(1,1)
Soil Carbon
2.59
(1,1)
Total fuel use and
machinery
production
1.55
Direct
Firing
Direct
Firing
gCO
20.48
Transport
1.30
15.21
(2,2)
Plant operation,
maintenance, and
construction
1.081(2,2)
CHP (direct combustion)
6.45
CHP
Gasification
CHP
Gasification
8.65
Emission during
storage
23.84
(2,1)
13
Feb 2017
Variability in bioenergy life-cycle assessment
Bioethanol GHG emissions
100
GWP of
petrol
2
1
80
60% GHG
saving
60
40
20
0
Wheat-grain
Sugarbeet
st
ra
w
st
ra
wo w
od
wo y
gr ody
as
gr ses
as
se
s
g CO2 eq. MJ-1 fuel
120
No co-products
DDGS
Straw as fuel
DDGS/straw
All co-products
Real
 Fertiliser use
 Crop yields
 Feedstock drying method
LCA methodology
 System boundaries
 Co-product credit method
Uncertainty
 N2O emissions from field
 Soil carbon stock change
?
Whitaker, J., Ludley, K., Rowe, R., Taylor, G. & Howard, D.C. (2010) Sources of variability in greenhouse gas
& energy balances for biofuel production: a systematic review Global Change Biology Bioenergy 2 99-112
Indirect Land Use Change (ILUC)
Involves:
• Displacement of activity (cascade)
• Intensification to balance productivity
• Integrated impacts with direct land use change
Simple concept – almost impossible to assess
Searchinger, T. et al. (2008): Use of U.S. croplands for biofuels increases greenhouse gases through
emissions from land-use change. Science, pp. 1238-1240
14
Feb 2017
DECC 2050 Pathways Calculator
http://2050-calculator-tool.decc.gov.uk/
LUC
Arable
LUC Model
Settlement
Woodland
Cover type
1st
Generation
Biocrops
Other
2nd
Generation
Biocrops
Grassland
Calculator
LCM2007
Validation
45,350
63,005
63,840 1
Grassland
132,020
127,301
115,220 1
Woodland
24,370
28,790
28,410 2
Settlement
21,241
14,648
19,632 3
Other
21,350
9,448
27,773 4
Total
244,330
243,192
242,495 5
Arable agriculture
15
Feb 2017
LUC baseline
Grassland
Arable
Woodland
Settlement
Other
Production options
Miscanthus
ODT h a
-1
SRC Willow
ODT ha
Highest yield
-1
16
Feb 2017
Constraints and production
Designations
Available yield
Undesignated Yield
O DT k m2
ODT ha -1
How much is needed?
Year
BAU
High
Nuclear
High CCS
2007
3,639
3,639
3,639
2010
1,120
2,443
1,943
2015
1,420
6,300
4,550
2020
1,720
10,082
7,082
2025
2,020
13,791
9,541
2030
2,320
19,760
11,930
2035
2,620
25,333
15,003
2040
2,920
30,843
18,013
2045
3,220
36,291
20,961
2050
3,520
41,680
23,850
Area of land (km 2) committed to bioenergy in the Calculator scenarios
17
Feb 2017
But where?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Consequences....
Which habitat is used?
What the calculator calls grassland
18
Feb 2017
Impact on species
• Biological Records Centre (National
Biodiversity Network)
• 50 species examined
10
20
30
40
50
Not included
https://nbn.org.uk/
Most at risk?
Broad Habitat
Status
Percentage occurrence of species in
squares in different regions
(UK, land available for bioenergy and land
restricted).
Species
Alisma gramineum
0.2
0.4
0.0
8.01
13
n,c
Selinum carvifolia
0.1
0.2
0.0
7.39
11
n,v
Crepis praemorsa
0.0
0.1
0.0
2.83
7
n,e
Bromus secalinus
7.4
9.6
4.9
1.97
4
a
Ratio represents available/restricted.
Broad Habitat is association with habitat
(see key at end of table). Status
a=archaeophyte, n=native, N=neophyte,
c=critically endangered, e=endangered,
v=vulnerable. Boxed species are grassland
Broad Habitats.
Pimpinella major
21.6
27.8
14.7
1.89
6
n
n,e
Key to Broad Habitats: 1=Broadleaved, mixed
and yew woodland; 3=Boundary and linear
features; 4=Arable and horticultural; 5=Improved
grassland; 6=Neutral grassland; 7=Calcareous
grassland; 8=Acid grassland; 9=Bracken;
10=Dwarf shrub heath; 11=Fen, marsh and
swamp; 12=Bog;14=Rivers and streams;
15=Montane habitats; 16=Inland rock; 17=Built-up
areas and gardens; 18=Supra-littoral rock;
21=Littoral sediment
Stachys germanica
UK
Available
Restricted
Risk Ratio
0.2
0.3
0.2
1.72
3
Salix alba
68.4
80.8
53.9
1.5
14
a
Ranunculus lingua
31.0
36.5
24.5
1.49
11
n
Sinapis alba
34.2
39.6
27.8
1.43
3, 4
N
Acer campestre
63.4
73
51.9
1.41
1, 3
n
Arum maculatum
71.6
82
59.2
1.38
1
n
Juncus inflexus
66.3
75.5
55.3
1.37
6, 11
n
Carex acutiformis
56.0
63.9
46.6
1.37
11
n
Chenopodium bonus-henricus
44.2
50.4
36.8
1.37
3
a
Malva moschata
58.8
66.9
49.1
1.36
6
n
Sagina apetala
36.0
40.5
30.5
1.33
17
n
Torilis arvensis
8.4
9.5
7.1
1.33
4
a
Colchicum autumnale
12.2
13.7
10.4
1.32
6
n
Medicago lupulina
75.1
83.5
64.7
1.29
7, 17
n
Viburnum opulus
74.3
82.7
64.0
1.29
1
n
19
Feb 2017
CEH Bioenergy and Land Use Research
Aim to reduce uncertainty in carbon savings from perennial
bioenergy feedstocks in the UK
 Quantify the impact of direct land-use change to bioenergy on
soil carbon and GHGs (CO2, CH4 and N2O)
 Test land management and mitigation strategies
 Develop a knowledge exchange network to increase impact
Measurement Framework
Short rotation forestry
Short rotation coppice willow
Miscanthus (perennial grass)
18 Land use change scenarios for the UK
Original land use
Bioenergy land use
Arable
Wheat, sugar beet, OSR, SRC willow, SRF, Miscanthus
Grassland
Wheat, sugar beet, OSR, SRC willow, SRF, Miscanthus
Forestry
Wheat, sugar beet, OSR, SRC willow, SRF, Miscanthus
Measurements on commercial farms:
• Intensive soil C and GHG monitoring sites (4)
• Paired site soil carbon stock assessments (~70)
• Carbon isotope techniques to improve
mechanistic understanding
20
Feb 2017
Soil carbon stock assessment (0-30 and 0-100 cm depth)
Grassland
(24)
Arable
(23)
SRF
(29)
SRF
SRC
SRC willow
(21)
Miscanthus
Miscanthus
(20)
Crop
Range
(yrs)
Median (yrs)
Short rotation forestry
4-24
16
Miscanthus
1-10
7
SRC-Willow
4-23
6.5
Lincolnshire – Miscanthus, SRC willow and arable
Eddy covariance
Net Ecosystem Exchange (NEE):
balance between photosynthesis
and plant and soil respiration
Miscanthus
11.5 ha
Miscanthus
11.5 ha
SRC-Willow
9.5 ha
SRC-Willow
9.5 ha
GHG emissions
Measurements of
CO, CH4 and N2O
Arable (OSR-barleywheat) 8 ha
Power
Soil carbon
stock change
Arable
8 ha30 cm and 1 m
depth sampling
Eddy Tower
Met Station
Static Chambers
21
Feb 2017
Soil carbon stock change following LUC to bioenergy
Planting on arable land = soil carbon gain
Planting on grassland = soil carbon loss
400
SRC willow /SRC
poplar
Ex-grass = -30.3 t C ha-1
Ex-arable= 9.7 t C ha-1
Bioenergy t C ha-1
Bioenergy t C ha-1
400
300
200
MiscanthusMiscanthus
Ex-grass = -16.2 t C ha-1
Ex-arable= 3.3 t C ha-1
300
200
100
100
0
0
0
100
200
300
400
0
100
200
300
400
Reference t C ha-1
Reference t C ha-1
Rowe et al. (2016) GCB Bioenergy
Vegetation
M e an n u m be r o f sp ec ie s p e r 4m 2 q u ad r at
10
Ground Flora Species Richness
9
8
7
6
a
a
a
a
ab
ab
5
bc
4
c
Fraction of total cover
• SRC, change in species composition.
• Miscanthus, depend on crop patchiness, Dauber (2014) fields yielding > 9.8 odt
ha−1 yr−1 had similar plant species richness arable fields.
• SRF, species dependant
3
SRC Willow
2
Arable land
1
Set-aside
d
0
Headland
Cropedge
Crop
22
Feb 2017
Risks to vegetation
Plant species of concern that maybe negatively affected
• Rare arable plants
– Cornflower, Corn buttercup, Pheasant’s eye, Venus’s-looking-glass, Weasel’s-snout,
Shepherd’s-needle
• Location and headland management may be crucial
Plant Life , http://www.plantlife.org.uk
Invertebrates
• SRC, higher abundance and diversity of epigeal predatory invertebrates, but no impact
on predation rates
• Miscanthus, Abundance of spider was found to be positively linked to patchiness but not
ground beetles (Dauber 2014)
Abundance
-4
3
(Individuals per 4.5 x10 m soil sample)
18
16
Ants
14
Other Beetles
Snake Centipedes
12
True Bugs
10
Harvestman
Other Spider
8
Beetle Larvae
Short Centipedes
6
Money Spiders
Rove Beetles
4
D. melanogaster pupa
C. Vomitoria pupa
Ground Beetles
2
0
Cereal Crop
Willow SRC
23
Feb 2017
Risks to invertebrates
Species of concern that maybe negatively affected
• Nectar and pollen feeding invertebrates
– Spp. of Butterflies, hoverflies, bees.
– SRC willow does produce catkins and stem feeding pest
produce sugar dew
– Headlands again essential
Mammals
c
Higher small mammal diversity, abundance and breeding in SRC willow compared to arable land
S.J. Clapham (thesis) also reported higher small mammal abundance Miscanthus than in arable
crops.
•
All provide shelter for larger mammals
Percentage of individuals KTBA *
•
100%
80%
Unknow
60%
Juveniles and Sub Adult
Males
40%
Non Breeding females
Breeding Females
20%
0%
W
AS
C
W
C
MG
W
MA
C
W
SA
C
W
C
SM
24
Feb 2017
Birds
Birds
• SRC is associated with a high abundance and diversity of Bird spp.
•
Warblers, Reed Bunting, Snipe, Woodcock , Wren, Black Bird, Song Thrush.
• Young Miscanthus plantation are associated with higher abundance and diversity
of bird spp. than arable fields, but benefits may diminish with crop age.
• SRF
•
Will depend on species selected and location, limited data.
Sage (2010) Ibis, Bellamy (2009) Biomass & Bioen.
Risks
Mammals
to birds
Bird species of concern that can be negatively affected
• Bird spp. associated with open farmland
– Yellow wagtail, Grey Partridge, Stone Curlew, Lapwings, Skylarks,
Raptors.
Photo by Chris Gomersall
Sage (2010) Ibis, Bellamy (2009) Biomass & Bioen.
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Feb 2017
Summary
• It’s complicated!!!!
• Scale, location and intensity are fundamental
• Second generation bioenergy crops have potential to increase
landscape biodiversity but are not a panacea.
• Objectives must be examined and trade-offs recognised
You niver get owt fer nowt!
David Howard
[email protected]
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