Download Sociology - University of London International Programmes

International Foundation Programme
Foundation course:
Sociology
Markus Ketola
FP0006
2013
This guide was prepared for the University of London International Programmes by:
M. Ketola, The London School of Economics and Political Science
This is one of a series of subject guides published by the University. We regret that due to pressure
of work the author is unable to enter into any correspondence relating to, or arising from, the
guide. If you have any comments on this subject guide, favourable or unfavourable, please use
the online form found on the virtual learning environment.
University of London International Programmes
Publications Office
Stewart House
32 Russell Square
London WC1B 5DN
United Kingdom
www.londoninternational.ac.uk
Published by: University of London
© University of London 2013
The University of London asserts copyright over all material in this subject guide except where
otherwise indicated. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, or
by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. We make every effort to respect
copyright. If you think we have inadvertently used your copyright material, please let us know.
Cover image © Ocean/Corbis
SOCIOLOGY
i
Contents
Introduction to the course................................................................................. 1
Introduction to sociological imagination....................................................... 7
Unit 1: Sociological perspectives
Introduction to Unit 1.............................................................................................................................15
Section 1.1: Positivism and functionalism .................................................................................20
Section 1.2: Conflict theory.................................................................................................................27
Section 1.3: Interpretivism...................................................................................................................32
Section 1.4: Critical perspectives: gender and ‘race’.............................................................37
Test your knowledge and understanding..................................................................................43
Concluding comments..........................................................................................................................45
Unit 2: Sociological themes
Introduction to Unit 2.............................................................................................................................46
Section 2.1: Identity..................................................................................................................................49
Section 2.2: Political sociology..........................................................................................................55
Section 2.3: Globalisation.....................................................................................................................60
Section 2.4: Global inequality............................................................................................................66
Test your knowledge and understanding..................................................................................71
Concluding comments..........................................................................................................................73
Research methods
Introduction to research methods.................................................................................................74
Unit 3: Policy issues
Introduction to Unit 3.............................................................................................................................81
Section 3.1: Family.....................................................................................................................................85
Section 3.2: Education............................................................................................................................91
Section 3.3: Crime.....................................................................................................................................97
Section 3.4: Poverty..................................................................................................................................103
Test your knowledge and understanding..................................................................................109
Concluding comments..........................................................................................................................111
Contents
Unit 4: Contemporary issues
Introduction to Unit 4.............................................................................................................................112
Section 4.1: Cities.......................................................................................................................................116
Section 4.2: The media...........................................................................................................................121
Section 4.3: Work........................................................................................................................................126
Section 4.4: The environment............................................................................................................132
Test your knowledge and understanding..................................................................................138
Concluding comments..........................................................................................................................140
Conclusion
Applying sociology – migration.......................................................................................................141
Looking back................................................................................................................................................147
Appendix 1: Sample examination paper........................................................ 154
ii
Introduction to the course
1
Introduction to the course
Route map to the guide
2
What is sociology?
2
Syllabus
3
Aims of the course
4
Learning outcomes for the course
4
Overview of learning resources
5
Examination advice
6
© University of London 2013
Introduction • Introduction to the course
Route map to the guide
Welcome to this course, which is designed to offer you a first introduction to the study of
sociology. The topics covered on this course include research methods, theoretical perspectives
and concepts, and important modern-day sociological issues. What is really exciting about the
study of sociology is that its aim is to understand the world around you. So although we say that
sociology is the study of society, at the same time you are studying your own life. After all, you
are part of the society you are studying. This is why many of the activities in this subject guide
ask you to reflect on your own life and your own experiences through a sociological lens. This is
the best way to begin to understand what it means to ‘think like a sociologist’. We will support
this kind of personal reflection with a wide range of sociological concepts. This will allow you to
take a step back from your own experience of being a member of society and think more broadly
about issues in society. This is called ‘using your sociological imagination’ – it is an important
sociological concept, and you will find out more about this in the section ‘Introduction to
sociological imagination’.
The subject guide is divided into 20 weeks of study. The introduction in the first week is followed
by two units that each take four weeks to complete. This is followed by a week-long introduction
to research methods, which is again followed by two units that are each four weeks long. Finally,
the last two weeks conclude the course. The details of each unit can be found in the Syllabus
section below. The course uses more than one textbook. Most of the readings come from two
textbooks, one of which is Sociology written by Anthony Giddens and Philip Sutton and another
entitled Sociology for AS AQA written by Ken Browne.
The aims of this subject guide are to:
introduce you to the relevant subject material
provide relevant background information for the required reading
take you through the readings with guiding questions and exercises
direct you to additional online resources.
You will see that in each of the units, the reading is divided into sections, and for each section
you are given some questions to answer. The purpose of these questions is to guide you through
the reading. We also like to think that by involving you all the way through each unit and section,
you will be encouraged to study sociology more actively. You will also find many additional
resources in the virtual learning environment (VLE), including both extra activities as well as links
to useful online resources.
What is sociology?
The simplest way of defining sociology is to say that it is the study of society. This can sound
quite broad, and students who are just starting to learn about sociology are often not sure
what the subject is about. They might choose to study sociology because they are interested in
people. This is a good start. If we want to learn something about the society we live in (or other
societies), we need to ask questions about people. For example, ‘why do people behave in a
certain way?’; or ‘how do people understand the world around them?’ So you can see why being
interested in people is a good start. Sociology is also interested in the study of social institutions.
Social institutions refer to the way in which society is organised. The family is a good example of
a social institution, and sociologists are very interested in understanding the role the family plays
in the way our society is organised.
The family sounds like an easy focus of study. After all, everyone already knows something about
the family. You could even say that this is just common sense. Actually, a sociological study of
the family questions – even challenges – common sense. The family is not always such a happy,
2
Introduction • Introduction to the course
positive and neutral social institution as we might imagine. It creates and maintains inequality
between men and women, for example. Sociologists are able to notice these kinds of things
because they use ‘sociological imagination’. This means that they look at familiar routines in new
ways, and always expect to find that common sense can actually be less obvious than we think.
But it’s not just about looking at things differently. The way sociologists actually do this is by
conducting rigorous research and collecting evidence, which is then analysed in a systematic
manner. Sociologists collect this evidence by talking to people, conducting surveys, reading
documents (for example, government publications) or by using statistics.
Syllabus
The main body of the course is structured into four units, each of which is further divided into
four sections. It is not easy to divide the study of sociology into separate sections. For example,
the theoretical perspectives of Unit 1 link with issues covered in all of the other three units. So
while the course is divided into four units, it is really important to keep in mind that there are
actually lots of links between the units as well. The units are as follows:
Introduction
The first week introduces you to the study of sociology and to the application of sociological
imagination to the study of society.
Unit 1: Sociological perspectives
This unit introduces you to the study of sociological theory. It reviews some of the contributions
made by the most important sociologists and looks at the two main theoretical approaches:
positivists and interpretivists.
Unit 2: Sociological themes
This unit introduces you to the study of identity, political sociology, globalisation and global
inequality. These are examples of the kind of social phenomena that sociologists are interested
in. In the activities you will also be asked to apply your own sociological imagination.
Research methods
This short one-week unit introduces you to research methods where you learn about qualitative
and quantitative methods and consider the issue of research ethics in sociological research.
Unit 3: Policy issues
This unit introduces you to the study of policy issues from a sociological perspective. You will
learn how sociological study can help to give insight to government policy. The unit focuses on
four areas of policy: family, education, crime and poverty.
Unit 4: Contemporary issues
This unit looks at issues that are very relevant to the society we live in today. It covers
urbanisation and the growth of megacities, the role of the media, the changing nature of work
and the environment.
Conclusion
The final unit is formed of two sections that aim to wrap up the course. The first section takes
one topic – migration – and demonstrates how the topics covered on the course help us to
understand this topic. The second section offers a more detailed overview of all of the units
covered on the course.
3
Introduction • Introduction to the course
Week Unit
1
Introduction
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
1: Sociological perspectives
2: Sociological themes
Research methods
3: Policy issues
4: Contemporary issues
Conclusion
4
Section
Introduction to the course
Introduction to sociological imagination
1.1: Positivism and functionalism
1.2: Conflict theory
1.3: Interpretivism
1.4: Critical perspectives: gender and ‘race’
2.1: Identity
2.2: Political sociology
2.3: Globalisation
2.4: Global inequality
Introduction to research methods
3.1: Family
3.2: Education
3.3: Crime
3.4: Poverty
4.1: Cities
4.2: The media
4.3: Work
4.4: The environment
Applying sociology – migration
Looking back
Aims of the course
This course has three main aims, which are closely linked to the main themes covered by the
subject guide. The course aims to:
provide a comprehensive introduction to sociology as a social science subject; this includes
the contribution of key authors and an understanding of the main perspectives and themes
in sociological research
consider ways in which theoretical and conceptual knowledge can be applied in real-life
contexts
develop analytical skills to develop critical thinking and the development of arguments.
Learning outcomes for the course
At the end of this course, and having completed the Essential reading and activities, you should
be able to:
develop and demonstrate an understanding of the key concepts, theories, themes and
methodological approaches used in sociology
apply sociological theories, concepts and themes to real-life issues covered in the course,
using relevant examples
apply and interpret different approaches to the same sociological phenomenon
identify and discuss the nature of the evidence used to argue in favour of a certain point of
view.
Introduction • Introduction to the course
Overview of learning resources
This course uses a variety of learning resources. The subject guide contains references to all of
the Essential readings required for the course. However, if you want to get a good mark on the
course, we highly recommend that you also make use of the list of Further readings. There are
also many VLE resources, which include both further activities and links to online resources that
will be helpful for your study.
The subject guide
This is the starting point for your reading. It introduces the basic concepts for each week and
explains the reasons for studying that week’s topic. The subject guide is written in such a way
that it supports the reading material found in the textbooks. The subject guide tells you at which
point you should complete each reading, and contains questions and short tasks that are there
to help you with your reading. It is important to read actively, with a purpose, and this is what
these questions and tasks are designed to help you do. This is also true for the subject guide, so,
as you read through it, it can be very helpful to keep key questions in mind. These can be linked
to the Learning outcomes of each unit (found at the beginning of each one).
Essential reading
All of the Essential readings are taken from two textbooks:
Giddens, A. and P. W. Sutton Sociology. (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2013) seventh edition
[ISBN 9780745652931]. We recommend that you buy this book as it is used extensively
throughout the guide.
Browne, K. Sociology for AS AQA. (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2013) fourth edition
[ISBN 978074565512]. All the sections recommended in the Essential reading lists have been
copied and are available to you in the VLE.
The sections that are most important and relevant to each topic are listed at the start of each
section in the subject guide.
Further reading
In this course the Further readings are meant as an additional resource for you to gain a deeper
understanding of each of the topics. The subject guide will provide the essential information you
will need to know in order to pass the course, but in order to achieve a very good mark you will
have to read more than just the Essential readings. You will find recommended Further reading
listed at the start of each unit.
Accessing the Student Portal and virtual learning environment
To manage all of your student administrative processes you will need to log in to the Student
Portal via: http://my.londoninternational.ac.uk
You should have received your login details for the Student Portal with your official offer, which
was emailed to the address that you gave on your application form. You have probably already
logged in to the Student Portal in order to register. As soon as you register, you will automatically
be granted access to the VLE, Online Library and fully functional University of London email
account. If you have forgotten these login details, please click on the ‘Forgotten your password’
link on the login page.
In order to access your learning materials for each course, you can click on the VLE tab within the
Student Portal or login to the VLE directly via: https://ifp.elearning.london.ac.uk/
5
Introduction • Introduction to the course
Examination advice
Important: the information and advice given in the following section are based on the
examination structure used at the time this subject guide was written. We strongly advise you to
check both the current Regulations for relevant information about the examination and the VLE
where you should be advised of any forthcoming changes. You should also carefully check the
rubric/instructions on the paper you actually sit and follow those instructions.
At the end of the course you will be examined by a two-hour unseen examination. This
examination is divided into three sections, which will test your knowledge and understanding
of sociology as well as your English comprehension. The questions in the first section are short
answer questions, requiring you to explain concepts covered in the course. The second section is
based on an ‘excerpt’ such as a short piece of text, chart or photograph, followed by a maximum
of five questions. The third section contains five essay questions and you are asked to answer
one. Sections 1 and 2 are each worth 25 per cent of the total mark, and Section 3 is worth 50 per
cent. Throughout the examination you are also tested on your ability to discuss sociology in an
academic style
6
Introduction to sociological imagination
7
Introduction to sociological
imagination
Learning outcomes
8
Introduction
8
Essential reading
9
Further reading
9
References cited
9
Sociological imagination
© University of London 2013
10
Introduction • Introduction to sociological imagination
Learning outcomes
By the end of this Introduction, and having completed the Essential reading and activities, you
should be able to:
identify five elements to the study of sociology (scientific study, human life, social groups,
whole societies and the human world)
understand the meaning of the ‘sociological imagination’
apply the sociological imagination to real-life situations.
Introduction
What is sociology? This is the central question for the whole course. Giddens and Sutton give a
definition of sociology that is a very good starting point for thinking about this question. They
define sociology as: ‘the scientific study of human life, social groups, whole societies and the
human world as such’.
There are five parts to this definition by Giddens and Sutton, and by examining each of these we
can build up a clear overall picture of what sociological study is about. Before we start, however,
it is good to remind ourselves that this is not a perfect definition. In fact, there are all kinds of
debates and tensions between these five parts of the definition; sociologists who focus on the
study of social groups might disagree with the view that sociology is also the study of whole
societies. For example, they might argue that whole societies are far too complex for sociologists
to be able to say anything meaningful about them. So it might be best to think about these five
elements as the ‘building blocks’ of a definition of sociology. In other words, we don’t need to use
each of them in equal measure.
First, sociology is often regarded as a ‘scientific study’. This means, among other things, that
sociological research is objective. You have to keep an open mind and look at all of the evidence
before reaching a conclusion. You also have to use sound research methods to collect the
evidence. This is the topic for Week 10. However, as you will see in Unit 1, there is a heated debate
about the degree to which sociology should be studied in the same way as the hard sciences.
Hard science versus soft science Hard sciences normally refer to the natural sciences,
such as physics and chemistry, where scientific research is often based on experiments
that can be controlled (for example, those done in a laboratory). Soft sciences generally
refer to social sciences where research is as rigorous but, because it deals with the social
world, the conclusions are open to debate. Unlike chemistry experiments where it is
possible to know exactly what causes a chemical reaction, in sociology it is more difficult
to be 100 per cent certain what causes a social event.
Second, sociology is the study of ‘human life’. This means that sociologists are interested in the
life experiences of individual human beings. Individual experiences and the way individuals
behave in society can tell us about the nature of the social environment we live in. In particular,
sociologists are interested in understanding how individuals influence their social environment
and how individuals are influenced by their social environment.
Third, sociology can refer to the study of ‘social groups’. Every individual is also part of a social
group. When we share interests and characteristics with other individuals in society, we create
relationships with them. Examples of social groups are: a household (people who live in the same
home), a peer group (people of the same age, status and who often share the same interests), a
club (which people join as members) or a community (quite a large group of people who share
8
Introduction • Introduction to sociological imagination
common characteristics, such as living in the same area). You can be a member of many different
social groups at the same time.
Fourth, for some, sociology is the study of ‘whole societies’. You can think of society as a very
large social group that is made up of many smaller social groups. Society is a very complex social
organisation, where individuals are connected through a shared culture and shared territory in
the same country where they live together. A society also shares many social institutions, such
as language, the legal system, schools and universities, hospitals and businesses. However, there
also exist debates about whether we should see nations as the boundaries of whole societies. In
today’s global age it may not be appropriate to limit our thinking about societies within our own
national boundaries.
Fifth and finally, sociology in its very broadest sense is the study of the human world. This
means that sociology is interested in that part of the world that has to do with human beings.
This means that it is not interested in biology or geology, but in how humans interact with their
natural environment, and how the changing environment (for example, drought, floods) is
going to affect human interactions (more conflict, lack of food). It also means that sociology is
interested in the way in which humans interact across national boundaries. So sociology, in its
very broadest sense, is interested in global social processes.
These five elements of the definition of sociology tell us very quickly that the breadth and
scope of sociology is almost without limits. The choice of different topics ranges from microlevel sociology that is interested in finding out about individual experiences to macro-level
sociology that is interested in learning about how societies work and understanding global social
processes, for example. However, because the field of sociological study is so broad, this also
means that there are disagreements between sociologists about what the focus of our study
should be. For example, should we focus on individuals or on whole societies when we conduct
sociological research? These are important debates in sociology that you will cover in more
depth later in this course.
So there are many different areas of sociology and many different ‘levels’ of society that can
be studied through sociology. But there are also some things that are the same for any kind of
sociological study. First of all, sociologists must study society in a way that goes beyond personal
experience. It is not enough to look at issues from your own personal perspective. You need to
‘take a step back’ and look at the issue you are studying from a broader perspective. Second –
and this is very much related to the first point – a sociologist should be prepared to challenge
existing assumptions. Assumptions are beliefs that have not been proven correct, but are still
believed (or assumed!) to be correct. A sociological approach does not take assumptions for
granted but challenges them, often by looking at ordinary, everyday events from a new point of
view.
Essential reading
Reading 1: Giddens and Sutton (2013) Chapter 1 ‘What is sociology?’, pp.5–8.
Further reading
Reading 1: Giddens and Sutton (2013) Chapter 1 ‘What is sociology?’, especially pp.25–27.
References cited
Mills, C. Wright The sociological imagination. (New York: Oxford University Press, first published
1959).
9
Introduction • Introduction to sociological imagination
Sociological imagination
Although sociology deals with issues of everyday life and with issues of common sense, it does
not mean that sociological explanations are based on feelings or personal opinions. One way
to ensure that this does not happen is to use what is called the ‘sociological imagination’. An
American sociologist C. Wright Mills, who wrote a book called The sociological imagination, was
the first person to use the term. It has since become a very important concept in the study of
sociology.
The sociological imagination helps us to take a step back from both individual experiences and
social structures. Only by doing this can we start to see the relationships between the two.
Sociological imagination This concept refers to the ability to ‘think ourselves away’ from
the normal routines of everyday life and look at them from a new perspective. In order to
have sociological imagination we have to take a step back from the social situation we are
looking at so that we can see it from a new point of view.
Activity
Complete Reading 1 (pp.5–8) and once you have done so complete the following task:
1. Explain in your own words how coffee can be used as an example of sociological
imagination.
2. Apply sociological imagination to your own life by answering the questions found
on the last page (p.8) of the reading and reproduced in the table below. You can then
compare your answers in class.
Question
Why did you decide to
study sociology?
Are you young?
Are you from a
professional (‘whitecollar’) background?
Your answer
10
Introduction • Introduction to sociological imagination
Are you doing part-time
work to boost your
income?
Do you want to find
a good job when you
finish your education
(but are not especially
dedicated to studying)?
Do you not really
understand what
sociology is?
There are important ways in which sociological imagination is being used on this course.
One aspect of this is ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism takes one’s own society or culture as
the ‘standard’ against which to judge other cultures. The purpose of sociological imagination
is to ‘think ourselves away’ and break free from our own possible ethnocentrism. Therefore
throughout the course you will see examples and experiences from different parts of the world,
and your task is to compare these experiences with your own. The aim is not to judge whether
one way is better than the other, but to try to see what is different or similar and to understand
why this is the case.
A social institution is an organised social arrangement, such as the family or the
education system. They help to create stability within a given society, by creating stable
patterns of human activity. For example, when a baby is born, the family creates a
standard pattern for his or her early childhood. The school system then takes over and,
possibly, the university or college after that. In early adult life the various institutions of
work, such as businesses, provide this stability. As a result, many individuals have a similar
and stable overall experience of growing up. It involves (first) being taken care of by your
family; (second) being educated by the school system; and (third) finding work.
A social structure is a ‘network’ of social institutions that together create the framework
within which society exists. Social structures are the end result of many social institutions
working together. In a nutshell, the term refers to the idea that our lives are ‘structured’.
That is, we are not completely free to do anything we want, and our lives are not
completely unplanned and spontaneous. The patterns created by social institutions lead
to routine practices and habits. For example, when you meet someone you have never
met before, you know that there is a certain way for you to greet each other (maybe you
shake hands or exchange business cards). This is an example of there being ‘structure’ in
our lives. We just know that in certain situations we should behave in a certain way. These
structures differ between cultures.
11
Introduction • Introduction to sociological imagination
Activity
1. Come up with a possible example of sociological research that fits each of the five
aspects of the definition of sociology:
scientific study
human life
social groups
whole societies
human world.
2. In your reading you saw an example of how sociological imagination can be applied to
the case of coffee. This required you to think about the social context in which coffee
exists. For example, what impact does it have on the actions of those who connected
with it (the producers and the consumers)? Now let’s do the same with the images
shown below. For the following activity, your class will divide into three groups, and
each group will have one image to study:
a man in a suit on a train
a woman walking a dog in a park
a group of people demonstrating.
Figure 1: Man in a suit on a train.
(By: Oli Shaw. Licensed under Creative Commons licence.)
12
Introduction • Introduction to sociological imagination
Figure 2: Woman walking a dog in a park.
(By: Nathanael Boehm. Licensed under Creative Commons licence.)
13
Introduction • Introduction to sociological imagination
Figure 3: A group of people demonstrating.
(By: Al Jazeera English. Licensed under Creative Commons licence.)
14
Unit 1: Sociological perspectives
15
Introduction to Unit 1
Overview of the unit
16
Aims
17
Learning outcomes
17
Essential reading
17
Further reading
18
References cited
18
© University of London 2013
16
Unit 1: Sociological perspectives
Overview of the unit
This first unit – which is divided into four sections – is an introduction to a small number of
important sociological theories and the thinkers – the ‘founding fathers’ of sociology – behind
these theories. Each of these sections tells us about a particular perspective in the study of
sociology while also providing a historical introduction to sociology. In this unit we will focus
on two theoretical perspectives: positivism and interpretivism. The first two sections focus on
positivism, and the latter two discuss different interpretivist perspectives.
Section 1.1 is focused on positivism and functionalism and it also talks about the work of Auguste
Comte, a French thinker whom many call ‘the world’s first sociologist’. This section also introduces
Emile Durkheim, another French thinker who was very influential in establishing sociology
as an academic discipline. In Section 1.2 we learn about the conflict perspective and find an
introduction to the work of Karl Marx. Section 1.3 introduces you to the interpretivist approach
through the work of Max Weber, the famous German sociologist. It also introduces you to a
sociological perspective called symbolic interactionism. In Section 1.4 we look at further critical
perspectives within sociology, specifically those which focus on gender and ‘race’ as dimensions
of social inequality. These perspectives are important because they are critical of the founding
fathers and point out how their work tended to exclude important issues such as gender and
race from their analysis.
Week Unit
2
1: Sociological perspectives
3
4
5
Section
1.1: Positivism and functionalism
1.2: Conflict theory
1.3: Interpretivism
1.4: Critical perspectives: gender and ‘race’
You might wonder why we are learning about the ideas and theories of men who lived over a
hundred years ago. One reason is that the works and ideas of these thinkers still have an influence
on how sociology is studied today. In Units 2, 3 and 4 you will often see how the ideas discussed
in this unit are applied to more recent sociological problems. Durkheim, Weber and Marx are still
relevant to sociological study because their works contain important insights into the nature of
society. At the same time we must remember that these perspectives are not without their critics.
They cannot explain everything and, in fact, quite often they are criticised for having ignored
important issues, such as gender and race. However, they are a useful starting point.
A common way to think about theoretical perspectives is as an ‘explanation of observed
regularities’ (Bryman, 2008, p.6). Let’s say that you are conducting a study that is concerned with
wanting to find out more about wealth. As you conduct your study you begin to notice a pattern:
there seem to be a relatively small number of people who are very wealthy and a large number
of people who are very poor. In addition, the small wealthy group own all the factories and farms
and the large poor group own very little and work in the factories and on the farms. So you have
observed two regular patterns, and from these it is possible to develop a basic theory of two
social classes (see Section 1.2 on Marx for more detail). That’s what it means to describe theory as
an ‘explanation of observed regularities’. Many of you, especially at the beginning of your studies,
might be a little uneasy about studying theory and would prefer to study the practical aspects of
your subject. However, when we try to explain why something happens we need to take a step
back from the focus of our study and to think more broadly.
Unit 1: Sociological perspectives
A theoretical perspective is created by identifying patterns. When a sociologist
observes the social world, they are looking for regular events that form a pattern. It might
be that not every single event follows this pattern, but it is true for most events. Theories
are an important part of sociological research and although theories cannot explain
everything, they are a useful starting point for understanding a subject.
Aims
This unit aims to:
provide an introduction to two main theoretical approaches to sociology – positivism and
interpretivism – through the work of at least four key sociological thinkers (Comte, Durkheim,
Marx and Weber)
develop analytical skills by comparing and contrasting the contributions of the key
sociological thinkers
provide a critical perspective to the work of the key sociological thinkers through the
perspectives of gender and race
illustrate the connections and disconnections between the ideas of different sociological
thinkers.
Learning outcomes
By the end of this unit, and having completed the Essential reading and activities, you should be
able to:
provide an introduction to three main theoretical approaches to sociology – functionalism,
conflict theory and interpretivism – through the work of at least four key sociological thinkers
(Comte, Durkheim, Marx and Weber)
define a set of at least five key sociological concepts – social fact, division of labour, capitalism,
gender and ethnicity – and link these concepts with relevant key thinkers and approaches in
sociology
compare positivism and interpretivism and discuss at least two examples of how these lead
to different theoretical approaches in sociology
apply the three different approaches to the study of sociology and state the strengths and
weaknesses of the different approaches.
Essential reading
Section 1.1
Reading 1: Giddens and Sutton (2013) Chapter 1 ‘What is sociology’, pp.9–10.
Reading 2: Giddens and Sutton (2013) Chapter 1 ‘What is sociology’, pp.10–12.
Reading 3: Giddens and Sutton (2013) Chapter 1 ‘What is sociology’, pp.12–15.
Reading 4: Giddens and Sutton (2013) Chapter 1 ‘What is sociology’, pp.18–21.
Section 1.2
Reading 1: Giddens and Sutton (2013) Chapter 1 ‘What is sociology’, pp.15–16.
Reading 2: Giddens and Sutton (2013) Chapter 3 ‘Theories and perspectives’, pp.73–76.
17
Unit 1: Sociological perspectives
Section 1.3
Reading 1: Giddens and Sutton (2013) Chapter 3 ‘Theories and perspectives’,
p.87.
Reading 2: Giddens and Sutton (2013) Chapter 1 ‘What is sociology’, pp.16–18; Chapter 3
‘Theories and perspectives’, pp.82–84.
Reading 3: Giddens and Sutton (2013) Chapter 1 ‘What is sociology’, pp.22–24.
Section 1.4
Reading 1: Giddens and Sutton (2013) Chapter 14 ‘Gender and sexuality’, pp.651–53.
Reading 2: Giddens and Sutton (2013) Chapter 14 ‘Gender and sexuality’, pp.653–54.
Reading 3: Giddens and Sutton (2013) Chapter 15 ‘Race, ethnicity and migration’, pp.675–78.
Further reading
Section 1.1
Giddens and Sutton (2013) Chapter 1, especially pp.21–27.
Browne (2013) Chapter 1, especially pp.3–8.
Section 1.2
Giddens and Sutton (2013) Chapter 3, especially pp.92–93.
Browne (2013) Chapter 1, especially pp.14–17.
Section 1.3
Giddens and Sutton (2013) Chapter 3, especially pp.78–82.
Browne (2013) Chapter 2, especially pp.47–52.
Section 1.4
Giddens and Sutton (2013) Chapter 3, especially pp.94–96.
Browne (2013) Chapter 2, especially pp.62–84.
References cited
Abbott, P., C. Wallace and M. Tyler Introduction to sociology: feminist perspectives. (London:
Routledge, 2005) third edition [ISBN 9780415312592].
Becker, H. Outsiders. (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1963) [ISBN 9780684836355].
Bryman, A. Social research methods. (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2008) third edition
[ISBN 9780199588053].
Elster, J. An introduction to Karl Marx. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985)
[ISBN 9780521338318].
Giddens, A. and P. W. Sutton Sociology. (Cambridge: Polity, 2013) seventh edition.
Käsler, D. Max Weber: an introduction to his life and work. (Cambridge: Polity, 1988)
[ISBN 9780226425603].
Marsh, I. Sociology: making sense of society. (Harlow; New York: Pearson Longman, 2009) fourth
edition [ISBN 9780582823129].
18
Unit 1: Sociological perspectives
Oakley, M. The sociology of housework. (Chichester: Wiley Blackwell, 1984; second revised edition)
[ISBN 9780631139249].
Taylor, S. Sociology: issues and debates. (Houndmills, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1999)
[ISBN 9780333676202].
Weber, M. The Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism. (First published in 1905).
19
Unit 1: Sociological perspectives
20
Section 1.1: Positivism and functionalism
Introduction
21
Why do we need theory?
21
Auguste Comte (1798–1857)
22
Emile Durkheim (1858–1917)
22
Unit 1: Sociological perspectives • Section 1.1: Positivism and functionalism
Introduction
This first section of the unit on sociological perspectives will introduce you to two early pioneers
of sociology and the positivist approach to sociological study – Auguste Comte and Emile
Durkheim. One aim of this section is to give you some historical perspective to the study of
sociology. Like any other discipline, sociology has slowly developed to become a very diverse
discipline with many competing theories and approaches, but these early key contributions
continue to have an important impact on the study of sociology today (indeed, we’ll return to
this positivist approach again in the later units that look at present-day issues in sociology).
This section is divided into three parts. The first part is quite short and asks you to think about
the purpose of theoretical perspectives in sociology. Why do we need them? Why is it useful?
The second section introduces you to the first of our sociological thinkers, Auguste Comte. He is
often regarded as the positivist scholar and a key contributor to the development of sociology.
The third section introduces you to a second sociological thinker, Emile Durkheim. He was also a
functionalist thinker who took Comte’s early ideas and developed them much further.
What is positivism? Put simply, it means that sociology must be based on facts that we can see
with our own eyes. Positivists believe that sociology should use the same methods of research as
those used in natural sciences (see the definition provided on p.8). According to this view, every
social institution has its specific purpose, or function. Functionalism is therefore a closely related
concept. It refers to the idea that every individual has a specific function to fulfil in society, and
every social institution has a specific role to play in the development of a stable and balanced
society. By the end of this section you should understand the meaning of these two terms.
Why do we need theory?
Theory is useful because it helps us to explain why processes (for example, industrialisation)
take place. First, we have the facts of industrialisation: increased productivity, new types of
jobs, people moving from the countryside to the cities. These changes are part of the process
of industrialisation. Second, we can build theories around these facts. For example, you can
construct a theory of how industrialisation causes changes in family structures, for example,
the bonds with the extended family of grandparents, aunts and uncles become less important.
Theory is a way of taking a step back from one such fact in order to see how it relates to other
facts. You can think of theory as a way of zooming out so that you can see the bigger picture.
Activity
Complete Reading 1 from this week’s Essential reading (pp.9 and 10). Giddens and Sutton
explain why theory is important to sociology. As you read, answer the following questions:
1. Why do sociologists need theory in addition to evidence-based factual research? In
other words, why do facts need to be supported by theory?
2. How does the example of the painting by Brueghel (p.10) help to explain why we need
theory to make sense of observed facts?
We will now look at two of the early scholars who asked these questions and the kinds of
answers they came up with.
21
Unit 1: Sociological perspectives • Section 1.1: Positivism and functionalism
Auguste Comte (1798–1857)
It is not a coincidence that the origins of sociological thinking in Europe date back to the mideighteenth century. This was a time of very big social changes that were caused by the quick
pace of industrialisation. Because of all these changes, scholars began to ask questions about
social change, such as ‘Why is it taking place?’, ‘How is it taking place?’ and ‘Where will it lead?’
Comte was a French sociologist and the first person to use the word ‘sociology’ to describe the
study of society. His contribution is important for two reasons. First of all, he was one of the first
scholars to try to answer these questions and therefore he is an important figure in the history
of sociology. Secondly, his approach to the study of sociology is based on a positivist approach
which is strongly linked to functionalism (the other approach, interpretivism, is discussed more in
Section 1.3). Comte wanted to be able to make predictions about the development of the social
world in the same way that chemists could predict the outcome of chemical reactions. Feelings
had no place in Comte’s vision for the study of sociology. This means that he believed sociology
should be studied in the same way as, for example, chemistry. We can only make decisions on
the basis of the facts that we see.
Activity
Complete Reading 2 (pp.10–12) and when you have done so, answer the following
questions:
1. How did social events that took place during Comte’s lifetime influence his thinking?
2. What does ‘positivism’ mean and how does this differ from the other ways (theological,
metaphysical) of understanding the world?
Comte’s ideas were very influential at the time he was writing. In particular, the idea that
sociology should be treated as a positive science (that is, modelled on the physical sciences
where the aim was to make law-like relationships between facts) has been very influential.
Seeing society through a positivist lens means that you believe that every individual in society
has a purpose, a specific role or function to fulfil.
Emile Durkheim (1858–1917)
Emile Durkheim, another French sociologist, agreed with Comte’s positivist approach to
sociological study, but with little else. You could say that Durkheim felt Comte ‘talked the talk
but never walked the walk’ because he never conducted sociological research based on the
principles he established. It is in the actual application of the sociological research methods that
Durkheim made a very important contribution. His work on different aspects of social change –
his studies on division of labour and suicide are the most famous – showed how it was possible
to conduct sociological research and what kind of things it was possible to find out by using this
approach. He believed that it was not appropriate to study individuals but preferable to study
social phenomena that were ‘bigger’ than the individual. Social facts refer to social phenomena
that are external (that is, they exist outside individuals) and constraining (namely, the existence of
this fact limits the actions we take). Durkheim argued that sociologists should study social facts –
concepts like the family or suicide. Even if a person dies, both of these facts will continue to exist
in society – there will still be families and suicides. The role of sociologists is to conduct research
into these social facts in order to understand their characteristics.
As we have seen, Comte and Durkheim believed that sociology should be a scientific study that
is focused only on the facts that can be observed. This scientific approach has also been called
22
Unit 1: Sociological perspectives • Section 1.1: Positivism and functionalism
the structural-functionalist perspective. (If you are interested in reading more about this, see
Giddens and Sutton, 2013, pp.72–73 for a further discussion.)
Activity
Complete Reading 3, the section on Emile Durkheim (pp.12–15). When you have done so,
answer the following two questions:
1. Why did Durkheim think it was more important to study social facts rather than
individuals?
2. What is meant by mechanical and organic solidarity? How does industrialisation lead to
a change from mechanical to organic solidarity?
Durkheim was not the first scholar to talk about the division of labour. Adam Smith had
published his book Wealth of nations over 100 years before Durkheim was writing about the
division of labour and of course many others had written about it as well. So what was new
about Durkheim’s work? It was the way he linked the two ideas of solidarity and the division
of labour. According to Adam Smith, individuals are held together by the ‘invisible hand of the
market’. In other words, increased division of labour leads to changes in the types of connections
that bind people together in a society. He then described this change as a move from
mechanical to organic solidarity.
Mechanical solidarity is an analogy that is closely related to physics and chemistry.
Similar to the elements in the periodic table – like gases or metals – which are all made
up of identical atomic units, in a mechanical society we find a uniformity of beliefs and
practices. Organic solidarity refers to a biological metaphor. As a society grows, the
economic activities in that society become more specialised. This means that individuals
are less similar to each other. Some might work as doctors, others as farmers, teachers or
bus drivers. The point Durkheim wants to make is that in a more complex society there
can be big differences between individuals. The uniformity that characterised a society
with mechanical solidarity disappears. In this way the society, as it grows and becomes
more complex, exerts an influence on the individual.
Activity
Complete Reading 4 (pp.18–21) and then answer the following questions:
1. Why do functionalists think that consensus is important for a society to function well?
2. Give an example of a dysfunctional aspect of social behaviour that can be found in
your own society.
The functionalist approach that Durkheim supported suggests that society works in the same
way as a complex structure in which each social institution has a specific function, just like each
organ in the complex structure of the human body has a specific function. The institutions work
harmoniously together, just like the various organs of the body work together harmoniously.
The institutions are also interdependent, in the same way that organs are dependent on each
other. However, it is also possible to identify clear boundaries between the institutions, as is also
true of our organs. Below is a diagram that looks at the relationships between some of the most
important social institutions from the point of view of one social institution, the family. (This is of
course not a complete list of all the social institutions.)
23
Unit 1: Sociological perspectives • Section 1.1: Positivism and functionalism
Religion
Work
Politics
Family
Education
Health
Figure 4: The ‘organic’ view of social institutions, from the point of view of the family.
Everyone has a role to fulfil, and by fulfilling that role they contribute to the stability of the overall
social system. This functionalist element is important to note because it means that social conflict
is not seen as an explanation of social change. As we see in the next section, others like Karl Marx
argue that social conflict is actually a very important cause of social change.
24
Unit 1: Sociological perspectives • Section 1.1: Positivism and functionalism
Activity
One of the aims of this section has been to introduce the idea of positivist theory. Using
what you have learned about positivism, how do you think the concepts below are related
to the positivist approach to sociological research?
Concept
Why is it an example of the positivist approach?
Social fact
Organic solidarity
Functionalism
Consensus
In this section we have covered some key aspects of the early positivist approach to sociology.
We have also looked at how the positivist approach is connected to the functionalist perspective.
There are two important consequences from this that you need to remember when we move
onto the next section. First of all, the functionalist perspective focuses on social facts rather
than individuals. Functionalists think that individual experiences are not a very useful focus for
research, because these are subjective experiences and good research, according to positivists,
must be objective. Second, functionalism is an approach that sees each individual as playing a
role in the complex structure of society. It is focused on stability and cohesion, and understands
society to evolve gradually in a harmonious way. In the next section we will challenge these
two arguments and look at how other thinkers have argued that individual experiences and
conflict are both very important elements of sociological study.
25
Unit 1: Sociological perspectives • Section 1.1: Positivism and functionalism
VLE activity
The VLE activity for this week looks at the work of the Muslim sociologist Ibn Khaldun.
The purpose is to move away from a purely Western focus and to show that the origins
of sociology are not to be found only in the West. The activity will be accompanied by
questions that encourage you to compare and contrast Ibn Khaldun’s ideas with those of
Comte and Durkheim.
26
Appendix 1: Sample examination paper
154
Appendix 1: Sample examination paper
Important note: This Sample examination paper reflects the examination and assessment
arrangements for this course in the academic year 2013–2014. The format and structure
of the examination may have changed since the publication of this subject guide. You can
find the most recent examination papers on the VLE where all changes to the format of the
examination are posted.
Time allowed: two hours
Candidates should answer TEN of the following FOURTEEN questions: ALL FIVE from
Section A (25 marks), ALL FOUR from Section B (25 marks) and ONE (out of five) from
Section C (50 marks).
Section A
Answer all five questions [25 marks]
1. Explain what is meant by the concept of Verstehen and its significance in the context of Max
Weber’s sociology.
[3 marks]
2. Outline the positive and negative aspects of urbanisation.
[5 marks]
3. Explain the term ‘sociological imagination’.
[3 marks]
4. Why do the $1-a-day measure and the Human Poverty Index identify different groups of
people as being in poverty?
[7 marks]
5. What is a conflict theory approach to the study of sociology and why does Marx’s work
belong to this approach?
[7 marks]
Section B
Answer all four questions [25 marks]
Globalisation refers to a process where the importance of national boundaries is reduced.
Global trade, communications, transport, technology and investment are some of the way in
which the process of globalisation is carried forward. Most often the process of globalisation
is linked to the process of economic integration between nations, with transnational
corporations (TNCs) like Coca-Cola and McDonalds often playing an important role.
The consequences of economic globalisation are many. On the one hand, this process
provides new opportunities for developing countries to find new markets for the products
and gain financially from this. On the other hand, some point out that globalisation leads to
greater inequality, because it enables developed Western nations to extract resources from
developing countries and become richer at their expense.
Globalisation has also a cultural aspect. Some observers argue that global brands and
products as well as the media and entertainment have a negative impact on local culture.
These global trends have a strong influence on local cultures and lead to a gradual
homogenisation of cultures. Others disagree with this view and argue that rather than being
homogenised, local cultures are able to adapt such outside influences to fit the local context.
This process is sometimes called ‘glocalisation’.
© University of London 2013
155
Appendix 1: Sample examination paper
Using the information above and information from other sources you have read, answer the
following questions:
6. Examine the arguments for and against seeing McDonald’s as an example of cultural
homogenisation.
[5 marks]
7. Discuss the impact of globalisation on either migration or urbanisation.
[5 marks]
8. Explain what is meant by ‘culture’ and what role socialisation plays in the development of
culture.
[10 marks]
9. Describe the relationship between globalisation and mass media. Illustrate your answer with
and example.
[5 marks]
Section C
Answer one question [50 marks]
10.Outline the key points of the feminist perspective and discuss how it helps to question the
assumptions made by either the functionalist or conflict theory perspective.
11.Discuss how sociology can contribute to our understanding and solving of environmental
problems.
12.‘Social movements are more democratic than most governments.’ Do you agree?
13.Assess the role of education in creating harmonious societies.
14.Identify the differences between paid and unpaid work and explain why the nature of work is
closely related to person’s self-esteem.