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BIOLOGY 11 – END OF TERM REVIEW We have studied all or parts of the following chapters. Below is a brief summary of the content or key ideas included in the relevant sections of each chapter. Students are expected to re-read these sections before using the review packages. CHAPTERS STUDIED: 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 8 Section 15-1: The Puzzle of Life's Diversity During his travels, Charles Darwin made numerous observations and collected evidence that led him to propose a revolutionary hypothesis about the way life changes over time. Darwin observed that the characteristics of many animals and plants varied noticeably among the different islands of the Galápagos. Section 15-2: Ideas That Shaped Darwin's Thinking Hutton and Lyell helped scientists realize that Earth is many millions of years old, and the processes that changed Earth in the past are the same processes that operate in the present. Lamarck proposed that by selective use or disuse of organs, organisms acquired or lost certain traits during their lifetime. These traits could then be passed on to their offspring. Over time, this process led to change in a species. Malthus reasoned that if the human population continued to grow unchecked, sooner or later there would be insufficient living space and food for everyone. Section 15-3: Darwin Presents His Case In artificial selection, nature provides the variation among different organisms, and humans select those variations that they find useful. Over time, natural selection results in changes in the inherited characteristics of a population. These changes increase a species' fitness in its environment. Darwin argued that living things have been evolving on Earth for millions of years. Evidence for this process could be found in the fossil record, the geographical distribution of living species, homologous structures of living organisms, and similarities in early development. Section 16-1: Genes and Variation Biologists have discovered that there are two main sources of genetic variation: mutations and the genetic shuffling that results from sexual reproduction. The number of phenotypes produced for a given trait depends on how many genes control the trait. Section 16-2: Evolution as Genetic Change Natural selection on single-gene traits can lead to changes in allele frequencies and thus to evolution. Natural selection can affect the distributions of phenotypes in any of three ways: directional selection, stabilizing selection, or disruptive selection. In small populations, individuals that carry a particular allele may leave more descendants than other individuals, just by chance. Over time, a series of chance occurrences of this type can cause an allele to become common in a population. Five conditions are required to maintain genetic equilibrium from generation to generation: there must be random mating; the population must be very large; and there can be no movement into or out of the population, no mutations, and no natural selection. Section 16-3: The Process of Speciation As new species evolve, populations become reproductively isolated from each other. Speciation in the Galápagos finches occurred by founding of a new population, geographic isolation, changes in the new population's gene pool, reproductive isolation, and ecological competition. Section 17-1: The Fossil Record The fossil record provides evidence about the history of life on Earth. It also shows how different groups of organisms have changed over time. Relative dating allows paleontologists to estimate a fossil's age compared with that of other fossils. In radioactive dating, scientists calculate the age of a sample based on the amount of remaining radioactive isotopes it contains. After Precambrian Time, the basic divisions of the geologic time scale are eras and periods. Section 17-4: Patterns of Evolution Six important patterns of macroevolution are: mass extinctions, adaptive radiation, convergent evolution, coevolution, punctuated equilibrium, and changes in developmental genes. Chpt 18 Three Domain Model Three Domains of Life 6 kingdom system Linnean classification Using a dichotomous key Section 19-1: Prokaryotes Archaebacteria lack peptidoglycan, a carbohydrate found in the cell walls of eubacteria, and their membrane lipids are quite different. Also, the DNA sequences of key archaebacterial genes are more like those of eukaryotes than eubacteria. Prokaryotes are identified by their shapes, the chemical natures of their cell walls, the ways they move, and the ways they obtain energy. Section 19-2: Bacteria in Nature Bacteria are vital to maintaining the living world. Some are producers that capture energy by photosynthesis. Others help to break down the nutrients in dead matter and the atmosphere, allowing other organisms to use the nutrients. Bacteria cause disease in one of two general ways. Some damage the tissues of the infected organism directly by breaking them down for food. Other bacteria release toxins (poisons) that harm the body. Section 19-3: Viruses A typical virus is composed of a core of either DNA or RNA surrounded by a protein coat. In a lytic infection, a virus enters a cell, makes copies of itself, and causes the cell to burst. In a lysogenic infection, a virus embeds its genome into the DNA of the host cell and is replicated along with the host cell's DNA. Chpt 20 PROTISTS Characteristics of Protists Plant like protists Animal like protists Life cycle (Alternation of Generation) Insert diagram here Figure 20-7 Animallike protists can cause serious diseases, including malaria. The life cycle of Plasmodium, which causes malaria, is shown below: As the new labels (below) point out, the sexual phases of the life cycle take place inside the body of the parasite's mosquito host. After a mosquito picks up gamete cells from the blood of an infected human, fertilization takes place in the gut of the mosquito. A diploid zygote is formed very briefly, and quickly undegoes meiosis, eventually producing haploid sporozoite cells that migrate to the salivary glands of the mosquito. The other stages of the parasite life cycle are haploid, including all stages inside the human host. Section 22-1: Introduction to Plants Plants are multicellular eukaryotes that have cell walls made of cellulose. They develop from multicellular embryos and carry out photosynthesis using the green pigments chlorophyll a and b. The lives of plants revolve around the need for sunlight, water and minerals, gas exchange, and the movement of water and nutrients throughout the plant body. The first plants evolved from an organism much like the multicellular green algae living today. Section 22-2: Bryophytes Bryophytes have life cycles that depend on water for reproduction. Lacking vascular tissue, these plants can draw up water by osmosis only a few centimeters above the ground. Bryophytes include mosses, liverworts, and hornworts. In bryophytes, the gametophyte is the dominant, recognizable stage of the life cycle and is the stage that carries out most of the plant's photosynthesis. Section 22-3: Seedless Vascular Plants Both forms of vascular tissue—xylem and phloem—can move fluids throughout the plant body, even against the force of gravity. Seedless vascular plants include club mosses, horsetails, and ferns. Ferns and other vascular plants have a life cycle in which the diploid sporophyte is the dominant stage. Section 22-4: Seed Plants Adaptations that allow seed plants to reproduce in areas without water include flowers or cones, the transfer of sperm by pollination, and the protection of embryos in seeds. Gymnosperms include gnetophytes, cycads, ginkgoes, and conifers. Life cycle typified by A of G Section 22-5: Angiosperms—Flowering Plants Angiosperms have unique reproductive organs known as flowers. Flowers contain ovaries, which surround and protect the seeds. Monocots and dicots are named for the number of seed leaves, or cotyledons, in the plant embryo. Monocots have one seed leaf, and dicots have two. There are three categories of plant life spans: annual, biennial, and perennial. Section 24-1: Reproduction With Cones and Flowers Reproduction in gymnosperms takes place in cones, which are produced by a mature sporophyte plant. Flowers are reproductive organs that are composed of four kinds of specialized leaves: sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels. Reproduction in angiosperms takes place within the flower. Following pollination and fertilization, the seeds develop inside protective structures called fruits. Most gymnosperms are wind pollinated, whereas most flowering plants are pollinated by animals. Section 24-2: Seed Development and Germination As angiosperm seeds mature, the ovary walls thicken to form a fruit that encloses the developing seeds. Seeds dispersed by animals are typically contained in fleshy, nutritious fruits. Seeds dispersed by wind or water are typically lightweight, allowing them to be carried in the air or to float on the surface of the water. Environmental factors such as temperature and moisture can cause a seed to end dormancy and germinate. Section 25-3: Plant Adaptations To take in sufficient oxygen, many aquatic plants have tissues with large air-filled spaces through which oxygen can diffuse. Plant adaptations to a desert climate include extensive roots, reduced leaves, and thick stems that can store water. Plants that have specialized features for obtaining nutrients include carnivorous plants and parasites. Many plants defend themselves against insect attack by manufacturing compounds that have powerful effects on animals. Section 26-1: Introduction to the Animal Kingdom An animal is a multicellular, eukaryotic heterotroph whose cells lack cell walls. Animals are specialized to carry out the following essential functions: feeding, respiration, circulation, excretion, response, movement, and reproduction. In general, complex animals tend to have high levels of cell specialization and internal organization, bilateral body symmetry, cephalization, and a body. Section 26-2: Sponges Sponges are classified as animals because they are multicellular, heterotrophic, have no cell walls, and contain a few specialized cells. The movement of water through a sponge provides a simple mechanism for feeding, respiration, circulation, and excretion. Section 26-3: Cnidarians Cnidarians are soft-bodied, carnivorous animals that have stinging tentacles arranged in circles around their mouth. They are the simplest animals to have body symmetry and specialized tissues. Cnidarians typically have a life cycle that includes two different-looking stages, a polyp and a medusa. Cnidarians include jellyfishes, hydras and their relatives, sea anemones, and corals. Section 27-1: Flatworms Flatworms are soft, flattened worms that have tissues and internal organ systems. They are the simplest animals to have three embryonic germ layers, bilateral symmetry, and cephalization. Turbellarians are free-living marine or freshwater flatworms. Flukes are parasitic flatworms that usually infect the internal organs of their hosts. Tapeworms are long, flat, parasitic worms that are adapted to life inside the intestines of their hosts. Section 27-2: Roundworms Roundworms are unsegmented worms that have pseudocoeloms and digestive systems with two openings—a mouth and an anus. Parasitic roundworms include trichinosis-causing worms, filarial worms, ascarid worms, and hookworms.Section 27-3: Annelids Annelids are worms with segmented bodies. They have a true coelom that is completely lined with mesoderm. Oligochaetes are annelids that typically have only a few setae and live in soil or fresh water. Leeches are typically external parasites that suck the blood and body fluids of their host. Polychaetes are marine annelids that have paired, paddlelike appendages tipped with setae. Section 27-3: Annelids Annelids are worms with segmented bodies. They have a true coelom that is completely lined with mesoderm. Oligochaetes are annelids that typically have only a few setae and live in soil or fresh water. Leeches are typically external parasites that suck the blood and body fluids of their host. Polychaetes are marine annelids that have paired, paddlelike appendages tipped with setae. Section 28-1: Introduction to the Arthropods Arthropods have a segmented body, a tough exoskeleton, and jointed appendages. In many groups of arthropods, continuing evolution has led to fewer body segments and highly specialized appendages for feeding, movement, and other functions. When they outgrow their exoskeletons, arthropods undergo periods of molting. Section 28-2: Groups of Arthropods Arthropods are classified based on the number and structure of their body segments and appendages, particularly their mouthparts. Crustaceans typically have two pairs of branched antennae, two or three body sections, and chewing mouthparts called mandibles. Chelicerates have mouthparts called chelicerae and two body sections, and most have four pairs of walking legs. Uniramians have jaws, one pair of antennae, and unbranched appendages. Section 28-3: Insects Insects have a body divided into three parts—head, thorax, and abdomen. Three pairs of legs are attached to the thorax. The growth and development of insects usually involve metamorphosis, which is a process of changing shape and form. Insects undergo either incomplete metamorphosis or complete metamorphosis. Ants, bees, termites, and some of their relatives form complex associations called societies. Chpt 8 – photosynthesis Section 8-1: Energy and Life Plants and some other types of organisms are able to use light energy from the sun to produce food. The characteristics of ATP make it an exceptionally useful molecule that is used by all types of cells as their basic energy source. Section 8-2: Photosynthesis: An Overview The experiments performed by van Helmont, Priestley, Ingenhousz, and other scientists reveal that in the presence of light, plants transform carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates and release oxygen as a byproduct. Photosynthesis uses the energy of sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide into oxygen and highenergy sugars. In addition to water and carbon dioxide, photosynthesis requires light and chlorophyll, a molecule found in chloroplasts. bio 11 end of term review BIOLOGY 11 – END OF TERM REVIEW Section 15-1: The Puzzle of Life's Diversity During his travels, Charles Darwin made numerous observations and collected evidence that led him to propose a revolutionary hypothesis about the way life changes over time. Darwin observed that the characteristics of many animals and plants varied noticeably among the different islands of the Galápagos. Section 15-2: Ideas That Shaped Darwin's Thinking Hutton and Lyell helped scientists realize that Earth is many millions of years old, and the processes that changed Earth in the past are the same processes that operate in the present. Lamarck proposed that by selective use or disuse of organs, organisms acquired or lost certain traits during their lifetime. These traits could then be passed on to their offspring. Over time, this process led to change in a species. Malthus reasoned that if the human population continued to grow unchecked, sooner or later there would be insufficient living space and food for everyone. Section 15-3: Darwin Presents His Case In artificial selection, nature provides the variation among different organisms, and humans select those variations that they find useful. Over time, natural selection results in changes in the inherited characteristics of a population. These changes increase a species' fitness in its environment. Darwin argued that living things have been evolving on Earth for millions of years. Evidence for this process could be found in the fossil record, the geographical distribution of living species, homologous structures of living organisms, and similarities in early development. Section 16-1: Genes and Variation Biologists have discovered that there are two main sources of genetic variation: mutations and the genetic shuffling that results from sexual reproduction. The number of phenotypes produced for a given trait depends on how many genes control the trait. Section 16-2: Evolution as Genetic Change Natural selection on single-gene traits can lead to changes in allele frequencies and thus to evolution. Natural selection can affect the distributions of phenotypes in any of three ways: directional selection, stabilizing selection, or disruptive selection. In small populations, individuals that carry a particular allele may leave more descendants than other individuals, just by chance. Over time, a series of chance occurrences of this type can cause an allele to become common in a population. Five conditions are required to maintain genetic equilibrium from generation to generation: there must be random mating; the population must be very large; and there can be no movement into or out of the population, no mutations, and no natural selection. Section 16-3: The Process of Speciation As new species evolve, populations become reproductively isolated from each other. Speciation in the Galápagos finches occurred by founding of a new population, geographic isolation, changes in the new population's gene pool, reproductive isolation, and ecological competition. Section 17-1: The Fossil Record The fossil record provides evidence about the history of life on Earth. It also shows how different groups of organisms have changed over time. Relative dating allows paleontologists to estimate a fossil's age compared with that of other fossils. In radioactive dating, scientists calculate the age of a sample based on the amount of remaining radioactive isotopes it contains. After Precambrian Time, the basic divisions of the geologic time scale are eras and periods. Section 17-2: Earth's Early History Earth's early atmosphere probably contained hydrogen cyanide, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide, and water. The rise of oxygen in the atmosphere drove some life forms to extinction, while other life forms evolved new, more efficient metabolic pathways that used oxygen for respiration. Section 17-3: Evolution of Multicellular Life Early in the Paleozoic Era, the fossil record became rich with evidence of many types of marine life. The mass extinction at the end of the Paleozoic affected both plants and animals on land and in the seas. As much as 95 percent of the complex life in the oceans disappeared. Section 19-1: Prokaryotes Archaebacteria lack peptidoglycan, a carbohydrate found in the cell walls of eubacteria, and their membrane lipids are quite different. Also, the DNA sequences of key archaebacterial genes are more like those of eukaryotes than eubacteria. Prokaryotes are identified by their shapes, the chemical natures of their cell walls, the ways they move, and the ways they obtain energy. Section 19-2: Bacteria in Nature Bacteria are vital to maintaining the living world. Some are producers that capture energy by photosynthesis. Others help to break down the nutrients in dead matter and the atmosphere, allowing other organisms to use the nutrients. Bacteria cause disease in one of two general ways. Some damage the tissues of the infected organism directly by breaking them down for food. Other bacteria release toxins (poisons) that harm the body. Section 19-3: Viruses A typical virus is composed of a core of either DNA or RNA surrounded by a protein coat. In a lytic infection, a virus enters a cell, makes copies of itself, and causes the cell to burst. In a lysogenic infection, a virus embeds its genome into the DNA of the host cell and is replicated along with the host cell's DNA. Section 17-4: Patterns of Evolution Six important patterns of macroevolution are: mass extinctions, adaptive radiation, convergent evolution, coevolution, punctuated equilibrium, and changes in developmental genes. Chpt 18 Three Domain Model 6 kingdom system Linnean classification Using a dichotomous key Chpt 20 PROTISTS Characteristics of Protists Plant like protists Animal like protists Life cycle (Alternation of Generations) Section 22-1: Introduction to Plants Plants are multicellular eukaryotes that have cell walls made of cellulose. They develop from multicellular embryos and carry out photosynthesis using the green pigments chlorophyll a and b. The lives of plants revolve around the need for sunlight, water and minerals, gas exchange, and the movement of water and nutrients throughout the plant body. The first plants evolved from an organism much like the multicellular green algae living today. Section 22-2: Bryophytes Bryophytes have life cycles that depend on water for reproduction. Lacking vascular tissue, these plants can draw up water by osmosis only a few centimeters above the ground. Bryophytes include mosses, liverworts, and hornworts. In bryophytes, the gametophyte is the dominant, recognizable stage of the life cycle and is the stage that carries out most of the plant's photosynthesis. Section 22-3: Seedless Vascular Plants Both forms of vascular tissue—xylem and phloem—can move fluids throughout the plant body, even against the force of gravity. Seedless vascular plants include club mosses, horsetails, and ferns. Ferns and other vascular plants have a life cycle in which the diploid sporophyte is the dominant stage. Section 22-4: Seed Plants Adaptations that allow seed plants to reproduce in areas without water include flowers or cones, the transfer of sperm by pollination, and the protection of embryos in seeds. Gymnosperms include gnetophytes, cycads, ginkgoes, and conifers. Life cycle typified by A of G Section 22-5: Angiosperms—Flowering Plants Angiosperms have unique reproductive organs known as flowers. Flowers contain ovaries, which surround and protect the seeds. Monocots and dicots are named for the number of seed leaves, or cotyledons, in the plant embryo. Monocots have one seed leaf, and dicots have two. There are three categories of plant life spans: annual, biennial, and perennial. Section 24-1: Reproduction With Cones and Flowers Reproduction in gymnosperms takes place in cones, which are produced by a mature sporophyte plant. Flowers are reproductive organs that are composed of four kinds of specialized leaves: sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels. Reproduction in angiosperms takes place within the flower. Following pollination and fertilization, the seeds develop inside protective structures called fruits. Most gymnosperms are wind pollinated, whereas most flowering plants are pollinated by animals. Section 24-2: Seed Development and Germination As angiosperm seeds mature, the ovary walls thicken to form a fruit that encloses the developing seeds. Seeds dispersed by animals are typically contained in fleshy, nutritious fruits. Seeds dispersed by wind or water are typically lightweight, allowing them to be carried in the air or to float on the surface of the water. Environmental factors such as temperature and moisture can cause a seed to end dormancy and germinate. Section 25-3: Plant Adaptations To take in sufficient oxygen, many aquatic plants have tissues with large air-filled spaces through which oxygen can diffuse. Plant adaptations to a desert climate include extensive roots, reduced leaves, and thick stems that can store water. Plants that have specialized features for obtaining nutrients include carnivorous plants and parasites. Many plants defend themselves against insect attack by manufacturing compounds that have powerful effects on animals. Section 26-1: Introduction to the Animal Kingdom An animal is a multicellular, eukaryotic heterotroph whose cells lack cell walls. Animals are specialized to carry out the following essential functions: feeding, respiration, circulation, excretion, response, movement, and reproduction. In general, complex animals tend to have high levels of cell specialization and internal organization, bilateral body symmetry, cephalization, and a body. Section 26-2: Sponges Sponges are classified as animals because they are multicellular, heterotrophic, have no cell walls, and contain a few specialized cells. The movement of water through a sponge provides a simple mechanism for feeding, respiration, circulation, and excretion. Section 26-3: Cnidarians Cnidarians are soft-bodied, carnivorous animals that have stinging tentacles arranged in circles around their mouth. They are the simplest animals to have body symmetry and specialized tissues. Cnidarians typically have a life cycle that includes two different-looking stages, a polyp and a medusa. Cnidarians include jellyfishes, hydras and their relatives, sea anemones, and corals. Section 27-1: Flatworms Flatworms are soft, flattened worms that have tissues and internal organ systems. They are the simplest animals to have three embryonic germ layers, bilateral symmetry, and cephalization. Turbellarians are free-living marine or freshwater flatworms. Flukes are parasitic flatworms that usually infect the internal organs of their hosts. Tapeworms are long, flat, parasitic worms that are adapted to life inside the intestines of their hosts. Section 27-2: Roundworms Roundworms are unsegmented worms that have pseudocoeloms and digestive systems with two openings—a mouth and an anus. Parasitic roundworms include trichinosis-causing worms, filarial worms, ascarid worms, and hookworms.Section 27-3: Annelids Annelids are worms with segmented bodies. They have a true coelom that is completely lined with mesoderm. Oligochaetes are annelids that typically have only a few setae and live in soil or fresh water. Leeches are typically external parasites that suck the blood and body fluids of their host. Polychaetes are marine annelids that have paired, paddlelike appendages tipped with setae. Section 27-3: Annelids Annelids are worms with segmented bodies. They have a true coelom that is completely lined with mesoderm. Oligochaetes are annelids that typically have only a few setae and live in soil or fresh water. Leeches are typically external parasites that suck the blood and body fluids of their host. Polychaetes are marine annelids that have paired, paddlelike appendages tipped with setae. Section 28-1: Introduction to the Arthropods Arthropods have a segmented body, a tough exoskeleton, and jointed appendages. In many groups of arthropods, continuing evolution has led to fewer body segments and highly specialized appendages for feeding, movement, and other functions. When they outgrow their exoskeletons, arthropods undergo periods of molting. Section 28-2: Groups of Arthropods Arthropods are classified based on the number and structure of their body segments and appendages, particularly their mouthparts. Crustaceans typically have two pairs of branched antennae, two or three body sections, and chewing mouthparts called mandibles. Chelicerates have mouthparts called chelicerae and two body sections, and most have four pairs of walking legs. Uniramians have jaws, one pair of antennae, and unbranched appendages. Section 28-3: Insects Insects have a body divided into three parts—head, thorax, and abdomen. Three pairs of legs are attached to the thorax. The growth and development of insects usually involve metamorphosis, which is a process of changing shape and form. Insects undergo either incomplete metamorphosis or complete metamorphosis. Ants, bees, termites, and some of their relatives form complex associations called societies. Section 28-4: Echinoderms Echinoderms are characterized by spiny skin, five-part radial symmetry, an internal skeleton, a water vascular system, and suction-cup-like structures called tube feet. The water vascular system carries out many essential body functions in echinoderms, including respiration, circulation, and movement. Classes of echinoderms include sea lilies and feather stars, sea stars, brittle stars, sea urchins and sand dollars, and sea cucumbers. Section 5-1: How Populations Grow Three important characteristics of a population are its geographic distribution, density, and growth rate. Three factors affect population size: the number of births, the number of deaths, and the number of individuals that enter or leave the population. Under ideal conditions and with unlimited resources, a population will continue to grow in a pattern called exponential growth. As resources are used up and population growth slows or stops, the population exhibits logistic growth. Section 5-2: Limits to Growth Density-dependent limiting factors include competition, predation, parasitism, and disease. Unusual weather, natural disasters, seasonal cycles, and certain human activities—such as damming rivers and clear-cutting forests—are all examples of density-independent limiting factors. Section 5-3: Human Population Growth Like the populations of many other living organisms, the size of the human population tends to increase with time. The characteristics of populations, and the social and economic factors that affect them, explain why some countries have high population growth rates while populations of other countries grow slowly or not at all. attached below APRIL 30 BEAN LAB DATA TABLES attached are the data tables for the bean lab SHOOT ROOT RATIOS FOR BOTH CLASSES AS WELL AS THE BEAN GERMINATION TABLE AND GRAPHS ALSO ATTACHED ARE THE ANALYSIS QUESTIONS FOR THIS LAB feb 29 updated data table for bacteria lab BACTERIA LAB #1 class data table REVISED D BLOCK bacteria Lab #1 Feb 24 students are doing a bacteria lab lab handout is attached STUDENT DATA TABLE BACTERIA LAB #1 class data table