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Beginning Writing
SENTENCE
 Has a subject and a verb
 Expresses a complete thought (does not need any help
making sense on its own)
Example: The cat ran up a tree to get away from the dog.
CLAUSES: TWO TYPES
 A Sentence (aka an Independent Clause):
 Has a subject and verb
 Can stand by itself
 Expresses a complete thought
Example: The cat ran up the tree.
CLAUSES (cont.)
 Dependent Clause
 Has a subject and verb
 Cannot stand by itself (does not make sense on its
own)because it is an incomplete thought
Example: Although the cat climbed the tree
PHRASES
 A group of words that function as a unit
 Does not contain both a subject and verb
 There are many types of phrases:
 Noun phrase
 Verb phrase
 Prepositional phrase
Noun Phrase
 A group of words functioning as one noun
 Example 1 : The cat in the tree
 Example 2: The black cat
 Example 3: The molded loaf of bread
Verb Phrase
 A group of words functioning as one verb
 Example 1: am learning
 Example 2: has been sitting
 Example 3: was running
Prepositional Phrase
 A group of words that links a sentence’s subject(s) and
verb(s) to other parts of the sentence.
 It contains a preposition and an object and may
contain modifiers
 It locates things in time

Example: in the morning
 It positions things in space

Example: by the library, next to the couch, over there
 It indicates direction

Example: Around the corner, to the store, away from here
Examples of Prepositional Phrases
 Around the corner
 After dinner
 On the table
 To the mall
 In an hour
 Before school
 Through the doorway
 Under the bed
 Above the ground
COMMAS: 4 USES
 USE 1: To insert extra information into a sentence
 Example 1: Mr. Smith will contact you next week.
 It’s a simple sentence, but who is Mr Smith? Maybe I should add some extra
information to make it clearer.
 Mr. Smith, our sales manager, will contact you next week.
 Example 2: The woman I spoke to, Alice Wright, said I
would receive the information by the end of the week.
 If we take out the words between the pair of commas, we are left with:
 The woman I spoke to said I would receive the information by the end of the
week.
COMMAS: CONT.
 Use 2: to separate two or more sentences that are
joined by a conjunction:

Use with coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS) to join 2 or
more independent clauses
 Example: I like swimming in the lake, but I wouldn’t want to
swim in a pond.

Use to separate dependent clauses at the beginning of a
sentence from the rest of the sentence
 Example: After we left the party, we went to eat at Waffle
House.
COMMAS: cont.
 Use 3: To separate 3 or more items in a series
 Example 1: I bought apples, oranges, and bananas at the
store.
 Example 2: When classes end, I need to finish my
Christmas shopping, wrap presents, and pack for my
trip.
COMMAS: cont.
 Use 4: After introductory words and phrases
Example 1: Before dinner, we need to wash our hands.
Example 2: Hey, can you pass the butter?
Example 3: One day, you will understand what I mean
when I say “comma splice.”
Semicolons
 Use a semicolon between two directly related, independent
clauses
 Example: Bob is good at math; he plans to study accounting.
 Spaghetti is cheap; I buy it a lot.
 Notice how the second sentence depends on the first to make
sense.
 Use a semicolon before a conjunctive adverb
 Example: I hired a tutor for my English class; thus, I got an A.
 Example: Bob usually gets up at 6:00; however, today he is off
work and can sleep in.
Avoiding Run-On Sentences
 A run on happens when you fuse two or more independent
clauses without the necessary punctuation or coordinators.
 Example: I worked hard in class I earned a good grade.
s v
s v
 This contains TWO independent clauses (two simple sentences)
with no punctuation or no coordinating conjunction.
 How to fix it?
 Step 1: check for 2 independent clauses
 Step 2: check that the clauses are separated by a coordinating
conjunction and a comma, or by a semicolon.
Comma Splices
 This occurs when you join two independent clauses
with only a comma and no conjunction.
 Example: The rain came down hard, we were soaked.
 How to fix it?
 You may use either a semicolon or a period instead of
the comma, OR you can add a coordinating conjunction.
But you must do ONE of these.

The rain came down hard, and we got soaked.


OR
The rain came down hard; we got soaked.
Subordination
 When using a dependent clause to begin a sentence,
use a comma after the dependent clause (the one that
depends on the main clause for its meaning)
 Ex: After the party was over, we went home to watch a
movie.
 When using a dependent clause at the end of a
sentence, don’t use a comma.
 Ex: We went home to watch a movie after the party was
over.
Fragments
 A sentence fragment is a group of words that looks like
a sentence and is punctuated like one but is not.
 It is a run-on because it is either:
 Missing a subject or a verb
 Does not make a complete statement
Example: Because parents with small children want a car with
room for a car seat, a stroller, diaper bags, and toys
Example: For example, the controversy over air bags
Correcting Fragments

Step 1: Check to make sure each group of words that looks like a sentence contains a main subject and
a verb—i.e. the sentence has a do-er and a do-ing (who is doing what?)

Step 2: If you find a subject and verb, check to make sure the group of words makes a complete
statement.
 Beware of sentences that do have a subject and verb but where one of them is not acting as the
SENTENCE subject or verb, like so:
 Example: My neighbor who never closes his dog up at night
 This is missing a verb and does not express a complete thought.
 Revised: My neighbor who never closes his dog up at night is annoying us.
 Example: The new policy of health care coverage on the basis of hours worked each week.
 This is missing a verb.
 What does the new policy DO?
 Revised: The new policy provides health care coverage on the basis of hours worked each
week.
 Be careful!
 Verbs in the –ing form (running, throwing, etc.) and the infinitive form (to run, to throw,
etc.) can never act alone as the verb in a sentence. They require a helping verb to make the
verb complete. Without the helping verb, your sentence will be considered a fragment.
 Fragment: The car speeding down the road.
 Revised: The car was speeding down the road.

If your “sentence” fails either of the above steps, you have a fragment; add the missing components.
Modifiers
 Adjectives
 Describe nouns (people, places or things)



green tree
tall man
Short, chubby dog
 Adverbs
 Describe verbs or adjectives



Ran quickly
Drove erratically
Extremely terrifying bear
Subject-Verb Agreement
 Subjects and verbs must agree in number
 Use singular verbs with singular subjects


Ex: Nicole runs out of the house every morning because she’s
late.
Singular verbs usually have an –s on the end
 Use plural verbs with plural subjects


Ex: They run with their track team.
Plural verbs usually do not have an –s on the end.
Problems with S-V Agreement
 Collective nouns:

In general, use singular verbs when the subject is a collective noun
(one that refers to a group of people acting as a whole)
 The audience laughs at the comedian.
 The team plays at home this week.
 Everyone has his own preferences.
 Changed word order: sentences beginning with here or
there
 There are crumbs on the floor
 From ‘Crumbs are on the floor.’
 Here are your books and pencils.
 From ‘Your books and pencils are here.”
Pronouns and Antecedents
 Challenge: his/her or their?
 In the following sentences, tell whether you’d use his or
her, or their as the antecedent.




Everyone in the store was talking on _____ phone.
All of the people in the cooking contest prepared _____ best
dishes.
Nobody brought____ coat, even though it was cold outside.
Neither of my cousins wanted to share _____ candy.
Possessives
 Use an apostrophe to show ownership
 Singular possessive = ’s
 Just add apostrophe s to the singular form


The rabbit’s fur
Mike’s car
 Plural possessive = s’
 First make it plural; then make it possessive:


Student studentsstudents’ books
Kidkidskids’ bikes
Plurals
 Except in special cases, to make a noun plural, add –s
or –es
 Shoe -> shoes
 Bag -> bags
 Flash -> flashes
REMEMBER:


’s and s’ shows ownership
-s or -es makes things plural