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Beginning Writing SENTENCE Has a subject and a verb Expresses a complete thought (does not need any help making sense on its own) Example: The cat ran up a tree to get away from the dog. CLAUSES: TWO TYPES A Sentence (aka an Independent Clause): Has a subject and verb Can stand by itself Expresses a complete thought Example: The cat ran up the tree. CLAUSES (cont.) Dependent Clause Has a subject and verb Cannot stand by itself (does not make sense on its own)because it is an incomplete thought Example: Although the cat climbed the tree PHRASES A group of words that function as a unit Does not contain both a subject and verb There are many types of phrases: Noun phrase Verb phrase Prepositional phrase Noun Phrase A group of words functioning as one noun Example 1 : The cat in the tree Example 2: The black cat Example 3: The molded loaf of bread Verb Phrase A group of words functioning as one verb Example 1: am learning Example 2: has been sitting Example 3: was running Prepositional Phrase A group of words that links a sentence’s subject(s) and verb(s) to other parts of the sentence. It contains a preposition and an object and may contain modifiers It locates things in time Example: in the morning It positions things in space Example: by the library, next to the couch, over there It indicates direction Example: Around the corner, to the store, away from here Examples of Prepositional Phrases Around the corner After dinner On the table To the mall In an hour Before school Through the doorway Under the bed Above the ground COMMAS: 4 USES USE 1: To insert extra information into a sentence Example 1: Mr. Smith will contact you next week. It’s a simple sentence, but who is Mr Smith? Maybe I should add some extra information to make it clearer. Mr. Smith, our sales manager, will contact you next week. Example 2: The woman I spoke to, Alice Wright, said I would receive the information by the end of the week. If we take out the words between the pair of commas, we are left with: The woman I spoke to said I would receive the information by the end of the week. COMMAS: CONT. Use 2: to separate two or more sentences that are joined by a conjunction: Use with coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS) to join 2 or more independent clauses Example: I like swimming in the lake, but I wouldn’t want to swim in a pond. Use to separate dependent clauses at the beginning of a sentence from the rest of the sentence Example: After we left the party, we went to eat at Waffle House. COMMAS: cont. Use 3: To separate 3 or more items in a series Example 1: I bought apples, oranges, and bananas at the store. Example 2: When classes end, I need to finish my Christmas shopping, wrap presents, and pack for my trip. COMMAS: cont. Use 4: After introductory words and phrases Example 1: Before dinner, we need to wash our hands. Example 2: Hey, can you pass the butter? Example 3: One day, you will understand what I mean when I say “comma splice.” Semicolons Use a semicolon between two directly related, independent clauses Example: Bob is good at math; he plans to study accounting. Spaghetti is cheap; I buy it a lot. Notice how the second sentence depends on the first to make sense. Use a semicolon before a conjunctive adverb Example: I hired a tutor for my English class; thus, I got an A. Example: Bob usually gets up at 6:00; however, today he is off work and can sleep in. Avoiding Run-On Sentences A run on happens when you fuse two or more independent clauses without the necessary punctuation or coordinators. Example: I worked hard in class I earned a good grade. s v s v This contains TWO independent clauses (two simple sentences) with no punctuation or no coordinating conjunction. How to fix it? Step 1: check for 2 independent clauses Step 2: check that the clauses are separated by a coordinating conjunction and a comma, or by a semicolon. Comma Splices This occurs when you join two independent clauses with only a comma and no conjunction. Example: The rain came down hard, we were soaked. How to fix it? You may use either a semicolon or a period instead of the comma, OR you can add a coordinating conjunction. But you must do ONE of these. The rain came down hard, and we got soaked. OR The rain came down hard; we got soaked. Subordination When using a dependent clause to begin a sentence, use a comma after the dependent clause (the one that depends on the main clause for its meaning) Ex: After the party was over, we went home to watch a movie. When using a dependent clause at the end of a sentence, don’t use a comma. Ex: We went home to watch a movie after the party was over. Fragments A sentence fragment is a group of words that looks like a sentence and is punctuated like one but is not. It is a run-on because it is either: Missing a subject or a verb Does not make a complete statement Example: Because parents with small children want a car with room for a car seat, a stroller, diaper bags, and toys Example: For example, the controversy over air bags Correcting Fragments Step 1: Check to make sure each group of words that looks like a sentence contains a main subject and a verb—i.e. the sentence has a do-er and a do-ing (who is doing what?) Step 2: If you find a subject and verb, check to make sure the group of words makes a complete statement. Beware of sentences that do have a subject and verb but where one of them is not acting as the SENTENCE subject or verb, like so: Example: My neighbor who never closes his dog up at night This is missing a verb and does not express a complete thought. Revised: My neighbor who never closes his dog up at night is annoying us. Example: The new policy of health care coverage on the basis of hours worked each week. This is missing a verb. What does the new policy DO? Revised: The new policy provides health care coverage on the basis of hours worked each week. Be careful! Verbs in the –ing form (running, throwing, etc.) and the infinitive form (to run, to throw, etc.) can never act alone as the verb in a sentence. They require a helping verb to make the verb complete. Without the helping verb, your sentence will be considered a fragment. Fragment: The car speeding down the road. Revised: The car was speeding down the road. If your “sentence” fails either of the above steps, you have a fragment; add the missing components. Modifiers Adjectives Describe nouns (people, places or things) green tree tall man Short, chubby dog Adverbs Describe verbs or adjectives Ran quickly Drove erratically Extremely terrifying bear Subject-Verb Agreement Subjects and verbs must agree in number Use singular verbs with singular subjects Ex: Nicole runs out of the house every morning because she’s late. Singular verbs usually have an –s on the end Use plural verbs with plural subjects Ex: They run with their track team. Plural verbs usually do not have an –s on the end. Problems with S-V Agreement Collective nouns: In general, use singular verbs when the subject is a collective noun (one that refers to a group of people acting as a whole) The audience laughs at the comedian. The team plays at home this week. Everyone has his own preferences. Changed word order: sentences beginning with here or there There are crumbs on the floor From ‘Crumbs are on the floor.’ Here are your books and pencils. From ‘Your books and pencils are here.” Pronouns and Antecedents Challenge: his/her or their? In the following sentences, tell whether you’d use his or her, or their as the antecedent. Everyone in the store was talking on _____ phone. All of the people in the cooking contest prepared _____ best dishes. Nobody brought____ coat, even though it was cold outside. Neither of my cousins wanted to share _____ candy. Possessives Use an apostrophe to show ownership Singular possessive = ’s Just add apostrophe s to the singular form The rabbit’s fur Mike’s car Plural possessive = s’ First make it plural; then make it possessive: Student studentsstudents’ books Kidkidskids’ bikes Plurals Except in special cases, to make a noun plural, add –s or –es Shoe -> shoes Bag -> bags Flash -> flashes REMEMBER: ’s and s’ shows ownership -s or -es makes things plural