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CHAPTER 3
Ethnographic Research: Its History, Methods,
and Theories
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How and Why Did Ethnographic Research
Evolve?
 What Are Ethnographic Research Methods?
 How Is Research Related to Theory?

Components of Cultural Anthropology
There are two main components in Cultural
Anthropology
1.
Ethnography -A detailed description of a particular
culture primarily based on fieldwork.
2.
Ethnology -The study and analysis of different
cultures from a comparative point of view.
Each taking place in various areas throughout the
world from postindustrial societies to small
communities.
Traditional vs. Modern Ethnography


Historically most anthropological research took
place on far reaching societies where little to no
information was known about the peoples and their
culture. These early ethnographies were a focus on
the life ways of these non-industrialized communities
which were thought to soon disappear by “civilized”
nations.
Modern ethnography has changed focus towards
documented dying cultures and changing cultures in
the face of globalization and forced assimilation.
Urgent/Salvage Anthropology

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During the past several hundred years with
expanding western domination many cultures have
become extinct or are on the verge of extinction do
to a violent history.
Since anthropologists can not stop violent or forced
cultural changes they have tried to document what is
left of these endangered cultures through a
technique known as urgent anthropology:
ethnographic research that documents endangered
cultures.
Acculturation Studies

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Similar to urgent anthropological studies are
acculturation studies.
Indigenous or native cultures that come into contact
with more dominant cultures often change
drastically. These changes cause cultures to adapt
quickly to a new way of life such as abandoning
native languages, religious beliefs, or social
practices.
Leaving these societies in despair and poverty
unable to survive in the new forced culture.
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Since the 1930’s famous anthropologist Margaret
Mead pioneered the first acculturation study with
the Omaha Indians of Nebraska.
These studies will document changes in the face of
the new cultures while documenting the traditional
way of the culture as it might have been precontact.
Applied Anthropology

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Acculturation studies gave birth to applied
anthropology-the use of anthropological knowledge
and methods to solve practical problems in communities
confronting new challenges.
Governmental officials whom earlier had begun
programs to assimilate native cultures into mainstream
culture quickly realized they were faced with larger
problems.
The begun to enlist the help of anthropologists to
develop government programs to reduce poverty,
promote literacy, and other issues.
“Culture at a Distance”


During WWII and the Cold War, anthropologists
were unable to study some cultures especially those
in warring areas. Several prominent anthropologists
began a technique of studying “cultures at a
distance”.
They would focus on the analysis of newspapers,
literature, photographs, and films. This information
was sometimes use as propaganda and
psychological warfare for countries at war.
Peasant Studies



Peasantry represents the largest social category of
our species so far. They fall into a category
between modern industrial society and traditional
subsistence foragers, herders, farmers, and fishers.
Because peasant unrest over economic and social
problems fuels political instability anthropological
studies of rural populations are considered
significant and practical.
Anthropologists began to focus in on the smaller
scale indigenous communities to offer insight on how
to deal with peasants resisting challenges to their
traditional way of life
Advocacy Anthropology
Some anthropologists have gone beyond just
studies of peasant cultures and become an
advocate for them. This is known as advocacy
anthropology: research that is community
based and politically involved.
 These anthropologists are committed to social
justice, humans rights, and the preservation of
ethnic minority culture.

Multi-Sited Ethnography


In the world of globalization there is a new trend in
ethnographic research known as multi-sited
ethnography: the investigation and documentation of
peoples and cultures embedded in the larger structures
of a globalizing world, utilizing a range or methods in
various locations of time and space.
More recent emerging techniques in multi-sited
ethnography are greater interdisciplinary approaches
to fieldwork. These will bring theoretical ideas and
research methods from cultural studies, media studies,
and mass communication.
Ethnography: Research Methods


Ethnographic fieldwork is best defined as
extended on-location research to gather detailed
and in-depth information on a society’s customary
ideas, values, and practices through participation in
its collective social life.
The first important question to be answered is what
site to research?
Site Selection

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Anthropologists primarily research cultures outside
of their own, in a foreign country. This is based on
the idea that studies done in one’s own culture might
bring biased to the research due to the familiarity
with the group or culture being studied.
Research will require several questions to be asked
such as:
 Finding
funding
 Securing permission to research
 Deciding what focus the research will take
Accurately Describing a Culture

To accurately describe a culture an
anthropologist needs to seek out and consider
three types of data:
1.
2.
3.

The people’s own understanding of their culture
and the general rules they share.
The extent to which people believe they are
observing those rules.
The behavior that can be directly observed.
There are many techniques that ethnographers
rely on to answer these questions.
Research Methodology

There are many facets to researching a new culture
or cultural practice that the ethnography will use:
 Acceptance
 Participant
Observant
 Key Consultants
 Quantitative & Qualitative Data
 Interviewing
 Mapping
 Photography & Filming
Informed Consent

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It is essential that ethnographers receive informed
consent which is a formal recorded agreement to
participate in research.
When it is a challenge to obtain informed consent,
or even impossible to precisely explain the meaning
and purpose of this concept and its actual
consequences, anthropologists may protect the
identities of individuals.
Participant Observation

The most significant aspect of ethnographic
research is participant observation. A research
method in which one learns about a group’s beliefs
and behaviors through social participation and
personal observation within the community, as well
as interviews and discussion with individual
members of the group over an extended stay in the
community.
Key Consultant

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In order to gain insight into the culture a particular
member might be utilized. Often these informants
or key consultants will be a member of the society
being studied, who provides information that helps
researchers understand the meaning of what they
observe.
They may also provide vital information to the
ethnographer about the history of the group.
Data Collection

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There are two main types of data collection used in
many types of research. Anthropologists utilize
both of these:
Quantitative- Statistical or measurable information,
such as demographic composition, the types and
quantities of crops grown, or the ratio of spouses
born and raised within or outside the community.
Qualitative- Nonstatistical information such as
personal life stories and customary beliefs and
practices.
Interviewing

Ethnographers must be consistently engaged in conversation
throughout their research. This is the single best way to
understand what people think about their own culture as well
as the world around them. These conversations may take two
approaches:
 Informal interview
 An unstructured, open-ended conversation in everyday
life.
 Formal interview
 A structured question/answer session carefully notated
as it occurs and based on prepared questions.
Eliciting Devices

Apart from traditional techniques of interview, data
collection, and the use of a key cultural consultant are
eliciting devices. These techniques can be activities or
objects that can be used to draw out individuals and
encourage them to recall and share information.
Taking a walk
 Asking about particular stories
 Share details of one’s own childhood or a fond memory.
 Pictures

Challenges of Ethnographic Fieldwork

Ethnographic research creates a tough challenge in
itself. Often anthropologists must face personal
challenges while trying to adjust to a new culture
and conduct fieldwork. Among the numerous mental
challenges anthropologists commonly face are
 Culture
shock
 Loneliness
 Feeling like an ignorant outsider
 Being socially awkward in a new cultural setting.
Challenges of Ethnography

Physical challenges typically include but are not
limited too:
 Adjusting
to unfamiliar food, climate, and hygiene
conditions.
 The need to be constantly alert to relevant
conversations that are significant to one’s research.
 Ethnographers must spend considerable time
interviewing, making detailed notes, and analyzing
data.
Challenges of Ethnography

Social & political challenges typically include but
are not limited too:
 The
need to gain acceptance within the community.
 Issues involving the researchers age, skin color, ethnicity,
religion, or gender.
 Being the center of rivaling groups while trying to
maintain a neutral position.
Completing an Ethnography

Upon completion of the data collection in the
field the ethnographer must begin to piece
together their information. Written
ethnographies are more traditional but
certainly not the only method to document the
data. Digital photography is the method by
which the use of audio and visual technologies
can be used to collect and analysis the
information collected.
Ethnohistory
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This is a type of historical ethnographic study by
which a culture(s) of the recent past is explored
through oral histories, accounts of explorers,
missionaries, and traders, and through analysis of
records such as land titles, birth and death records,
and other archival materials.
This type of research is great for building theories
regarding culture change.
 In
science an explanation of natural phenomena,
supported by a reliable body of data.
Description vs. Theory
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Once an ethnography is complete so begins the
interpretation of the information collected in the field.
It is necessary to understand how descriptions can
develop into interpretations.
Theories are not usually ascertained by the researcher
due to the nature of the data (non-scientific) rather they
focus on the probability of certain aspects of the
culture.
Researchers might rely more heavily on the doctrine of
a culture: an assertion of opinion or belief formally
handed down by an authority as true and indisputable.
Also known as dogma.
Human Relations Area Files (HRAF)
In science a single instance of a phenomenon is
not enough to support a hypothesis- let alone a
theory
 Anthropological theories are formulated from
worldwide cross cultural comparisons
throughout history.
 The Human Relations Area Files help to make
this happen.

HRAF
HRAF is a vast collection of cross-indexed
ethnographic and archaeological data
catalogued by cultural characteristics and
geographic locations.
 Archived in about 300 libraries (on microfiche
and/or online).
 They include: warfare, subsistence practices,
settlement patterns, marriage, rituals, etc.

Anthropology’s Theoretical Perspectives

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Ethnographers will typically fall into one of two
categories for their fieldwork.
Idealist perspective
A
theoretical approach stressing the primacy of
superstructure (ideas & values) in cultural research and
analysis.

Materialist perspective
A
theoretical approach stressing the primacy of
infrastructure (material conditions) in cultural research
and analysis.
Suggested Activities

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Students often overlook the importance of learning
ethnographic research methods because it can be difficult
to apply them to a real life scenario. There are several
techniques that can help the student better understand the
importance of research techniques and how ethnographers
gain insight into the their fields of study.
Below are two activities that can help the student to apply
what they have learned. One activity is short and can be
completed in 1-2 class periods depending on time. The
other is best used as a research project and can take up to
4+ weeks to complete.
Short Activity (20min-1hour)
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Have the students pair off or place them into pairs. Allow
each student to conduct an ethnography on the other
through interview. Ask them to first write a series of
questions about what they would like to know about the
other student.
Give the students free range with their questions but
suggest that they ask both personal and impersonal
questions.
Class discussions afterwards can focus on how easily their
informant (interviewee) answered the questions and what
ones they felt uncomfortable with.
Touch on concepts dealing with gaining acceptance,
interview techniques, as well as observation, etc.
Longer Activity (several weeks)
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Have students chose a topic to research that is something
they are unfamiliar with but might be interested in
learning about.
 Such topics might include: Religious ceremonies, clubs,
rites of passage, local activities, etc.
 Once students have chosen a topic (1-2 weeks)
Give students a rubric of focus. Generally they should
attend the function (participant observation), interview
people whom are involved in the function or event
(interview) and describe what they see.
The focus will be for the student to conduct their own miniethnography and then either submit a paper on the
ethnography or present it to the class.

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I have found that students will seem lost in the beginning but
urge them to really think out side of the box, generally they
will come up with amazing topics of research. I typically do
not discourage any research provided it is done in a safe
environment and remains on topic with an ethnographic focus.
Keep the students focused throughout the research by having
them ask the five “w”’s
 “Who” practices this?
“What” is practiced?
 “Where” is this practiced?
“When” is it practiced?
 “Why” is it practiced?