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Pronouns There are many kinds of pronouns. Early on in our discussions, we will concentrate on personal pronouns, but we will also cover demonstrative pronouns, indefinite pronouns, and, to a lesser extent, interrogative and relative pronouns. (Read about them!) Pronouns are not nouns, but are words that take the place of noun and function in a similar fashion. In fact, the “pro” in “pronoun” is Latin for “in place of.” The word that a pronoun substitutes for is an antecedent. That term is also based on Latin, and is roughly translated as the word “that came before.” o In almost all cases with personal pronouns, an antecedent is required. With some of the other kinds of pronouns, you can have sentences without obvious antecedents, but whether you an antecedent is present or not, a writer must always be clear about what noun a pronoun is replacing (who “he” is… what “it” refers to… that is meant by “this or “those,” et cetera) We use pronouns so much so we don’t have to keep repeating the antecedent. (In this example, the antecedent is highlighted in blue and the pronouns are highlighted in yellow.) o The boy went inside his house to ask his mother if he might ride his bicycle to a nearby park. rather than…. o The boy went inside the boy’s house to ask the boy’s mother if the boy might ride the boy’s bicycle to a nearby park. An antecedent is generally close by the pronoun that replaces it—if not in the sentence itself, then perhaps in the previous sentence or two. Much of the time (>75%), the antecedent is the last used noun. o Because she had lost her car keys, my mother went tearing through every room in the house until she found them. o When a writer uses “I,” “me, “my,” “mine,” and “myself”, he or she is making a reference to self. Hence, even if the writer’s name does not appear in a passage, we can nevertheless assume that the antecedent for these first person personal pronouns is the writer him- or herself. o I wish my garden were more colorful and vibrant. (The antecedent of these pronouns is understood to be the writer/speaker of the sentence.) Pronoun reference error: when antecedent is unclear o John and his friend went shopping at the mall, and he bought a suit. (Who bought the suit?) Many readers will glance at this sentence and answer that John bought the suit, but that’s just a supposition, or guess. In the sentence, as written, it is simply unclear whether the antecedent for he is “John” or “his friend.” In this respect, the writer had given the issue up for interpretation. And that’s never good, for while most readers will assume that John bought the suit, others may have understood it to be the friend who purchased the garment. And in the end, we don’t really know which readers are right, and with such a vague and ambiguous sentence, we can’t be certain what the writer meant. A clearer sentence would be: “John went shopping at the mall along with his friend and bought a suit.” Or “John and his friend went shopping at the mall, and the friend bought a suit.” Or “John went shopping at the mall along with his friend, who bought a suit.” Notice that clarification of pronoun reference can involve rephrasing or repositioning certain words in a sentence, or it may involve eliminating the use of a pronoun, especially if a discussion involves numerous people of the same gender. o John said that his dad said that he was going fishing. (unclear)(Is John going fishing, or is it the dad who is going?) o John’s father said he was going fishing. (unclear)(Readers still cannot say for certain who is going fishing.) John’s father said, “I am going fishing.” (clearer)(Here, it is clear: the dad is going fishing.) John said that his father was going fishing. (clear)(We know from this sentence that it is John’s father who is going fishing.) John’s father commented that John was going fishing. (clearer) (Readers will understand from this sentence that John is going fishing, as opposed to his father’s going fishing.) o Pronoun agreement error: when pronouns are fundamentally different than the antecedent, especially in terms of number and gender. Each student was asked to bring their completed medical form for the school trip. The problem is a mismatch: Each student singular subject was asked singular verb to bring their plural pronoun completed medical form singular noun for the school trip. A corrected version of the sentence: “Each student was asked to bring his or her completed medical form for the school trip.” Or “Each student was asked to bring her completed medical form for the school trip.” Or “Each student was asked to bring his completed medical form for the school trip.” Or “Students were asked to bring their completed medical forms for the school trip.” Pronoun case error: when an incorrect version of a pronoun is used or is asked to function in a way it’s not designed to function. o Example: My mother and me traveled across country to see my grandfather before he died. (This sentence should use “my mother and I,” not “my mother and me.”) In this sentence the word “me” is appearing in front of “traveled,” a verb. That verb calls for a subject, but “me” is not capable of serving as a subject. “I,” on the other hand, is a subject case pronoun. o Another example: If you have any questions or customer complaints, direct them to either myself or one of the other shift managers. (This sentence should say, “either me or one of the other shift managers.”) In this sentence the word “myself” is part of a prepositional phrase and is purporting to function like the object of the preposition. However, as a reflexive case pronoun, it cannot function that way. “Me,” an object case pronoun, is what the sentence calls for. Case is the concept of fashioning pronouns to serve various specific functions within sentences. Hence, the personal pronouns (and some other pronouns) have different versions of themselves. Depending on how a writer phrases his or her sentence, a reference to self might require be accomplished by any of the following words: “I,” “me,” “my,” “mine,” or “myself.” There are four basic “cases” upon which we will concentrate: subjective, objective, possessive, and reflexive. For each of the seven personal pronouns, I’ve provided a list of the various cases. o Subject case: I, we, they, he, she, it, you These words are used when you want a pronoun to function as the subject of the sentence. Some books/teachers refer to them as nominative case pronouns. o Object case: me, us, them, him, her, it, you These words are used when a pronoun is functioning as a direct object, an indirect object, an object of the preposition, the object of an infinitive phrases, and the like. o Possessive case (which function as adjectives): my/mine, our/ours, their/theirs, his, her/hers, its, your/yours Possessive pronouns function as adjectives which are used to “show ownership” (as many grammar books say) or to describe an association between the antecedent and a person or object. As with many adjectives, possessive pronouns often appear directly in front of a noun: my car, his sister, your exam. Other times, we phrase things differently and must use different versions of the words: That dog is mine. It’s hers. Which house belongs to them? That one on the corner is theirs. His is the first bedroom on the right. (Here, coincidentally, a possessive pronoun serves as the subject of the sentence. This is possible because, in the intricate world of grammar, the antecedent for “his” is a bedroom presumed to be owned by a man or boy.) Some students get confused and think possessive pronouns are different from possessive adjectives. But possessive pronouns are possessive adjectives!!! They are just a particular kind of possessive adjective. I think the confusion stems from the fact that the vast majority of possessive adjectives are created from nouns and require apostrophes in their spelling. There are considerably fewer possessive pronouns, and thanks to the concept of case, are sort of preformed words that don’t require apostrophes. John’s car is red. (possessive adjective created from the proper noun John) His car is red. (possessive pronoun whose antecedent refers to the male owner of the car.) I asked John’s girlfriend if she would give me his phone number since I had accidentally deleted his from my cell phone. She didn’t actually have it in her phone, either, but she borrowed her best friend’s phone and looked it up for me. (In these sentences, I highlighted all the possessive adjectives. The pink represents possessive adjectives created by nouns. The green represents possessive pronouns. Despite being outnumbered by nounbased possessive adjectives, it is typical to use more possessive pronouns in sentences than other possessive adjectives) o Reflexive: myself, ourselves, themselves, himself, herself, itself, yourself/yourselves Some grammar sources try to distinguish reflexive pronouns from intensive pronouns despite the fact that they are represented by the very same words. Intensive pronouns emphasize another used pronoun or nouns whereas a reflexive pronoun renames a noun, most often the subject. The difference is reflected in these examples: They complained about her dishonesty, but they themselves lied. (“Themselves” is said to intensify “they.”) He hurt himself when he tripped on the sidewalk. (“Himself” renames “he,” and would therefore be considered a reflexive pronoun. For our purposes, these distinctions are pretty subtle, so we will not attempt to differentiate reflexive pronouns and intensive pronouns. Sentences with pronouns, their cases identified: I (subjective) travel a lot. He (subjective) dances very well. He (subjective) gave the trophy to me (objective/object of the preposition) when I (subjective) won the tournament. He (subjective) gave me (objective/indirect object) the trophy when I (subjective) won the tournament. She (subjective) asked me (objective/indirect object) a question. I (subjective) answered her (objective/direct object). Joan asked her (possessive) brother to fix her (possessive) car and park it (objective/direct object) in her (possessive) neighbor’s driveway. “Momma, I (subjective) did it (objective) myself (reflexive)!” Melissa and he (subjective) ate their (possessive) supper, paid the bill, left the restaurant, and went on their (possessive) way. He (subjective) asked me (objective/indirect object) to keep Joan’s secret between us (objective) / him (objective) and me (objective). He (subjective) slept through his (possessive/adjective) algebra class and didn’t take any notes. When they (subjective) went to the lake, the boat wouldn’t start because it (subjective) didn’t have any gas. My (possessive/adjective) friend hurt himself (reflexive) by running and tripping on the curb. I (subjective) love my kids even though they make me mad at times. My friend hit himself on the shoulder when the barbell he was holding slipped from his hands. My mother went to the grocery store to buy the ingredients for her special cake, but it didn’t have any in stock. My mother went to the grocery store to buy the ingredients for her special cake, but they weren’t available. Whenever my dog sees itself in a mirror, it barks like crazy. Whenever my dog sees herself in a mirror, she barks like crazy. My friend is planning a going-away party for Lisa, Melissa, and me. Some people learn from their mistakes, and some individuals just repeat them. My professor, Laura Foster-Eason, is going to the Texas Rangers’ game; she is going by herself. Hopefully, her team will win, and she will be very pleased. Laura hopes her favorite baseball team will win, and she will probably have to cross her fingers and pray. My favorite team, the Texas Rangers, won the AL championship; it doesn’t have to win tonight. I personally like the Rangers but don’t watch the team as much as I did in my youth. The Texas Rangers play a game tonight; my family and friends of ours are going to watch the team play. o Seeming Exceptions (But not really): First exception: sentences that make comparisons. These exceptions involve “understood” or “implied” elements of sentences, especially predicates. What this statement means is that we write the sentence considering words that don’t actually appear on the page. Comparisons use the subject case: He is taller than I. o What’s implied? He is taller than I (am tall). o Hence, even though “am tall” doesn’t appear in the sentence, we structure the sentence as though it were there. o Writing He is taller than me isn’t grammatical because “me” is the wrong case to fit the grammatical structure of the implied predicate: He is taller than me (is tall). Other examples: o Nobody sings as well as she (sings). --or— Nobody sings as well as she sings. o He runs faster than I (run). o Nobody is as good as she (is good). o My friend is smarter than I (am smart). o She is smarter than I. o He is more sensitive than I. o Nabeel is more sensitive than Mariam. o He is more sensitive than she is. o I am more sensitive than __they___ (are sensitive). o o He is way more awesome than I (am awesome). o He is more intelligent than they/others (are intelligent). Errors with sentences that make comparisons are quite common, especially in our conversations, and sentences like, I wish I were more like her make ready sense to people. Most of the time, such errors go unnoticed or are not remarked upon, so it is easy to develop a tolerance for hearing them. In other words, they don’t “sound wrong” to many people. Worse yet, correct versions of the sentences may actually feel uncomfortable to some speakers. This is why it is problematic to rely only on the instinct of how something sounds to determine whether it’s proper English or not. Sometimes, it depends on meaning whether you use subject or object case in a sentence in which a writer makes a comparison of two other individuals rather than between him- or herself and another. You trust Mr. Aton more than me. o This would mean that the writer thinks that the person to whom he is speaking trusts Mr. Aton more than that person trusts the writer. --or-o You trust Mr. Aton more than (you trust) me. You trust Mr. Aton more than I. o This would mean that the writer thinks that the person to whom he is speaking trusts Mr. Aton more than the writer trusts Mr. Aton. --or-o You trust Mr. Aton more than I (trust him). Probably, it is better all the way around to write out the implied elements than risk being unclear, so… You trust Mr. Aton more than you trust me. --or-o You trust Mr. Aton more than I trust him. o I have more fear of him than you. (Here, the meaning is unclear.) o Clearer: I have more fear of him than you do. (Meaning is clear: the writer compares how much fear of “him” she or she has compared to how much fear “you”--whoever you is--has of “him.) o Clearer: I have more fear of him than I have of you. (Meaning is clear: The writer’s fear of “him” or less than the writer’s fear of “you.”) I believe her more than him. (Here, the meaning is unclear.) o Clearer: I believe her more than I believe him. (Meaning is clear) o Clearer: I believe her more than he believes her. (Meaning is clear). o Exception #2: Answering the phone and other subject complements: This is she. This is he. This is I. In these sentences, “she,” “he,” and “I” are all predicate pronouns that go with the linking verbs. Predicate pronouns that accompany linking verbs are often called subject complements, which is a good name for them because they use subject case pronouns. All of these versions of the sentences are improper: o This is her. o This is him. o This is me. –or-- It’s me. o In these sentences, the problem is that the pronouns appear in objective case. These may be further examples that may convince you of the need to re-train your instincts because, to a lot of people, these sentences sound “okay.” o Demonstrative pronouns: this, that, these, those Demonstrative pronouns serve as adjectives. This sweater, those doughnuts, that man, these days This will be on the exam. (wrong) This information will be on the exam. (correct) That’s a good idea, Jim! (weak) That idea is a good one, Jim! (better) This material will be on the exam. (correct) This formula will be on the exam. (correct) (You) Go get me that can of Coca-Cola. (You) Go find me these candy bars. These people are driving me crazy. Those cans of juice contain ample vitamins. Those girls make me sick. Who is taking you to the dance? With whom are you going to the dance? Who are you going to the dance with? Who are you? You are who? Those girls make me sick with all the silly tricks they play on my brother and me, and I just wish they would be more like our male cousins, who are always fun. Anna asked me if I wanted to go hiking with her since it seems that the summer’s hot days have gone. We had very nice weather today, but this morning was so chilly that my son asked me for a light jacket. This morning was cooler than yesterday, and the crisp air felt great to me. It was a nice day for those people who hated the hot summer days. I am glad that this summer is over; I can’t wait for the snow days to come. I love days like these, where the weather is temperate, and there is no need for jackets. These girls were picking on my little brother at the park, so I asked the girls to leave him alone. These two days of cool weather felt really refreshing to me after this long, hot summer. Those Texas Rangers did very well; my professor and I are very pleased with the team. The Texas Rangers are planning to go through hard games just like that last one, where the team lost against Seattle. Last week was a good time for the Greenhill team to win the game. My daughter and I kept on clapping the whole time while those good players who won the game were playing hard. Personal pronouns: various forms (cases) of I, he, she, they, we you, and it Indefinite pronoun: several, couple, few, one, two, any, some, one, everyone, everybody, anybody, someone, somebody else, anyone else, others, who, and so forth o Indefinite pronouns frequently function as subjects and also in other noun-like ways (such as direct objects or objects of the preposition), but the same words often function as adjectives. When they function as nouns, they often work in conjunction with a prepositional phrase; when they function as adjectives, they are usually directly in front of the noun they modify. To illustrate these tendencies, I’ve highlighted prepositional phrases in aqua and the modified nouns in red. o Some (indefinite pronoun as subject) of the children were playing in the sandbox. Some (indefinite pronoun as adjective) children are playing in the sandbox. One (indefinite pronoun as subject) of the children was playing in the sandbox. One (indefinite pronoun as adjective) child is playing in the sandbox. I gave a piece of candy to each (indefinite pronoun as an object of the preposition) of the trick-or-treaters. I gave each trick-or-treater a piece of candy. Each of the students should turn in his or her vaccination record to the school nurse. Each student should turn in his or her vaccination record to the school nurse. A few shoes were missing from my closet. A few of my shoes were missing from my closet. A few (indefinite pronoun as an adjective) pairs of my shoes were missing from my closet. A few of the pairs of my shoes from my closet were missing. I found a few (indefinite pronoun functioning as a direct object) of the pairs of my missing shoes. One of the students is being recognized. One is being recognized at a school assembly today for good citizenship. The top of the shelves is dusty. Neither of my parents wants me to go camping this weekend. Hopefully, none of you makes this mistake in the future. Some of the children are wearing jackets. One of the children is wearing a tank top. Everybody in the class, especially the teachers, is ready to go to the museum for the school trip. In the beginning of the semester, many of students were asked to call out their names and say something about themselves. Some (indefinite pronoun as adjective) children (noun as subject) were playing in the sandbox. Some (functioning as an adjective) students are taking notes. Some (subject of the sentence) of the students are taking notes. The teacher gave a treat to each (indefinite pronoun as object of the preposition) of the children at recess. The teacher gave a treat to each (indefinite pronoun as adjective) child at recess. Anybody (indefinite pronoun as subject) can come to the party who wants to. One (indefinite pronoun as subject) of the students received an award. One (indefinite pronoun as subject) received an award. Several (indefinite pronoun as an adjective) people like to go to the park to exercise. Some (indefinite pronoun as subject) of the children on my street were playing soccer. Everyone (indefinite pronoun as a subject) that played football enjoyed themselves (reflexive), but several (indefinite pronoun as an adjective) people got hurt. Always singular: another, anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, little, much, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one, other, somebody, someone, something Always plural: both, few, many, others, several Either singular or plural: all, any, more, most, none, some Voice is a concept in our language that identifies whether the speaker/writer is talking about himself, whether he is talking about others, or whether he is talking to the listener/reader. o Sometimes, “voice” is discussed as “point of view.” And point of view is usually categorized in three ways, all of which use the terminology of “person.” o First person Someone is discussing him- or herself and makes references to self with the following words: “I,” “me,” “my,” “mine,” and “myself.” If the speaker/writer includes others along with himself, he would change these references to “we,” “us,” “our,” “ours,” and “ourselves.” In this sense, first person pronouns are said to be either singular or plural. o Second person Second person involves a person talking directly to another person or to a group of people. The second person pronouns include “you,” “your,” “yours,” “yourself, and “yourselves.” Like with first person pronouns, second person pronouns are either singular or plural, depending on the number of people being addressed. o Third person Third person allows individuals to write about things and people with whom or with which the speaker/writer may not have direct involvement. With third person, the writer is not mentioning himself, and he is not talking to or making comments about the reader(s). Instead, he is “reporting” on things and/or other people who are sometimes referred to as “third parties.” Third person relies heavily on the use of nouns, both common and proper, and these third-person personal pronouns: “he,” “she,” “they,” “it,” and all the various “case” versions of those words. o People speak and write using all three viewpoints and often combine them numerous times, even in the same conversation or some passage they might write. However, certain points of view tend to dominate certain styles of writing and are more comfortably used with some writing topics. For example, somebody relating a narrative, or telling a story about himself would probably use first person. Someone giving another person instructions tends to use second person. Third person is often used to present information, provide examples, and make descriptions of historical events. o Third person is the most widely used (and commonly accepted) point of view in formal writing and is what is expected scientific writing, legal writing, academic style prose, and even most business communication. Now, there are some exceptions in each of these realms, and you should not imagine that there are super strict rules that have no wiggle room, but the overuse and inappropriate use of “I” and “you” can weaken writing and lead to criticisms of your style. o Please note: like so many concepts, we discuss, people rarely comment upon—or scarcely notice--which “person” a person is using when he or she talks, but when our thoughts are recorded in writing, the choices we make about “person” are often more noticeable and subject to a lot more scrutiny than you might imagine. In school, your essay grade might be lowered. At work, your proposal might have to be re-written. A research journal might not publish your findings if you do not put them down using accepted standards for writing. o The theory behind why first person is not so appropriate for academic style writing is that your ideas are not exclusive to you (they have a broader application) and it is unnecessary for you to use first person to express an opinion any way. Actually, it’s kind of wordy. o The theory behind why second person is so awkward in prose is that the approach seems to presume things about the reader/listener that simply may not be true. When you end your relationship, you are likely to be sad for weeks. What is the reader doesn’t have a relationship, has a strong one, or is glad to be rid of a partner and has no sadness? o Often, inexperienced writers inappropriately use second person because they are trying to avoid using first person. Perhaps, for example, they want to give an example based on what has happened to them. However, they think they should generalize and include other people in their examples because they realize that their experience is probably not unique. And they frequently imagine that their reader(s) have had similar experiences. But the problems aren’t solved by this strategy and can even be exacerbated by it. When you end your relationship with your boyfriend, you are likely to be sad for weeks. But what if the reader is….. It is better to use first person giving an example you acknowledge as unique to you (When I ended my relationship, I was sad for weeks) or to re-write it in third person. o Transforming second-person prose isn’t hard. It usually involves switching from second-person pronouns to third-person ones, eliminating pronouns altogether, substituting nouns for pronouns, or engaging in some re-phrasing. (weak) When you end your relationship, you are likely to be sad for weeks. (better) When a person ends a relationship, he or she is likely to be sad for weeks. (better) Ending relationships can leave individuals sad for weeks.