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Chapter 28
Descent into the Abyss: World
War I and the Crisis of the
European Global Order
The Coming of the Great War

There were a host of different long-term
factors that led to the outbreak of WWI,
including:
◦
◦
◦
◦
1) Alliance systems
2) Imperialism
3) Militarism
4) Nationalism
 We will discuss them in this order, but the acronym
M.A.I.N. is a good one to help you remember these
long-term causes.
The Coming of the Great War
(#1a)

A) Alliance systems
◦ Germany’s growing industrial and military power in
Europe threatened the major powers on the
continent (France, Russia, and Britain)
◦ Germany’s neighbors, France and Russia, allied
themselves in the 1890’s to surround Germany and
discourage a declaration of war or invasion by
Germany.
◦ Britain responded in part due to Germany growing
economic power and threatening naval capabilities.
◦ By the early 1900’s the three (Russia, France, and
Britain) had formed the Triple Entente (agreement).
◦ Germany responded by allying with AustriaHungary and Italy.
Pre-WWI Alliances
Super-Mega Pre-WWI Alliances
Venn Diagram
The Coming of the Great War
(#1b)

Imperialism
◦ For decades, most European powers had been
engaged in an imperialist rivalry around the
globe. These rivalries heightened tensions
between the nations. (map on p.551)
◦ Imperialist rivalries only served to further the
tensions between nations and feed the
jingoism (warlike nationalism) of each
nation.
The Coming of the Great War
(#1c)

Militarism
◦ Alliance systems and imperialist rivalries only
helped to fuel the arms race of the early 1900’s in
Europe.
◦ Naval power was the most obvious form of
military buildup.
◦ Germany poured money into its navy in order to
challenge Britain on the open seas. Both nations
built more and better naval vessels as a result.
◦ The size of armies grew steadily to number in the
millions. Each nation was preparing itself for war.
Militarism Continued

•
•
•
•
•
•

All the countries of Europe built up their armies
and navies. In 1914, their armed forces stood
like this:
Germany: 2,200,000 soldiers, 97 warships
Austria-Hungary: 810,000 soldiers, 28 warships.
Italy: 750,000 soldiers, 36 warships
France: 1,125,000 soldiers, 62 warships
Russia: 1,200,000 soldiers, 30 warships
Great Britain: 711,000 soldiers, 185 warships
As one country increased its armies, so all the
others felt obliged to increase their armed forces
to keep the ‘balance of power’.
The Balkan problem (#2)
Nowhere was the tension higher in
Europe than in the Balkans.
 Complex ethnic divisions and rivalries
made this territory a hotbed of crisis.
 On top of this, in the years before WWI,
there had been a series of regional wars
in this region over territories and
resources. (map on p. 535)

The Balkan Problem

It made the races ruled by the Ottoman Turks
(such as the Romanians and the Bulgarians) and
by Austria-Hungary (such as the Serbs) want to
be free to rule themselves. In the Balkans this
was called ‘Panslavism’ because the people who
wanted to be free were all Slavic races. The most
nationalistic of all were the Serbs – Serbia had
became an independent country in 1878, but in
1900 many Serbs were still ruled by Turkey and
Austria-Hungary, and Serbia was determined to
break free. This led to rebellions and terrorism
which destabilized the Balkans.
The Balkans in 1914
Annexed to
Austria in 1908
“The Powder Keg of Europe” (#3)
On June 28, 1914, the Archduke of
Austria-Hungary, Franz Ferdinand visited
the Bosnian capital of Sarajevo.
 Bosnia had been taken from Serbia by
Austria-Hungary years earlier.
 A Serbian nationalist, Gavriel Princip,
assassinated the Archduke. (you will read
an article on this)

Gavriel Princip’s mugshot (19 yrs. old)
Franz Ferdinand’s Car
Assassination leads to war
Alliance System takes over (#4)





Austria-Hungary responded by declaring war on
Serbia (exactly one month after the assassination).
Serbia was backed by Russia (defender of the Slavic
race), so Russia declare began mobilizing its troops to
the border of Austria-Hungary.
Germany backed Austria-Hungary, and was worried
about Russian troop movements, so it declared war
on Russia.
Britain and France then declared war on Germany
and Austria-Hungary
The Ottoman Empire joined Germany and AustriaHungary in 1915. They had for decades been reliant
upon German military advisors and financiers.
Alliance System
WWI Causes
WWI Map (Central Powers and
Allied Powers)
The Schlieffen Plan (#5)
Germany found itself at a distinct
disadvantage once war was declared,
having to fight a two-front war.
 As a result Germany devised a plan to
launch a quick and massive attack to the
west (towards France) and then turn back
towards the more backward less
threatening Russia in the east.
 This plan was spearheaded by General
Alfred von Schlieffen, hence the name.

The Schlieffen Plan
The World at War (#6)
Initially, the Schlieffen plan worked brilliantly.
Germany swept through Belgium rather
quickly and found itself in northern France
pushing towards Paris.
 French forces retreated to Paris to regroup
and defend their capital. Just outside Paris
the two sides squared off at the Marne River
in what came to be called the Battle of the
Marne.
 French forces heroically halted the German
advance and saved their capital and nation
from German occupation.

Marne taxi system
Trench Warfare (#7 p.650)
Trench Warfare (#7 p.650)
Effects of WWI Weaponry (#8)


On top of having
devastating killing
power, the weapons of
WWI were best used
to hold defensive
positions rather than
lead charges or
offensive maneuvers.
As a result, very little
ground was gained by
either side between
1914 and 1917.
War on the Eastern Front (#9)
Though war in the East was just as
horrific, the results were much different.
 German armies were able to make large
gains against the poorly trained and
ineptly led Russian forces.
 The highest levels of casualty of any of the
nations involved in the war and the poor
leadership of the Russian state led to
outright mutinies and revolts that toppled
the tsarist regime in 1917.

Direct Control from Governments
(#10)

As war continued, governments took
more and more control over areas of
both public and private life:
◦ Industrial sectors were taken over by gov’t.
Factories were told what to produce and
railroads were administered by the state.
◦ Massive censorship took place (Sedition Acts)
◦ Propaganda departments were created to stir
public support and opinion.
- As a result, WWI became the first total
war in human history.
War Brings Change for Women
(#11)




Because WWI was a total war, all members
of the society were asked to participate.
More than any other previous war, women’s
involvement increased tremendously.
Millions of women in Britain, France,
Germany, Russia, and the U.S., joined the
work force or military.
Wages for women increased and they gained
a newfound sense of confidence that was
rooted in the reality of their importance to
their countries and societies.
War Brings Change for Women
(#11)



It is no coincidence that
women’s liberation
movements began
around this time.
Rising hemlines on
dresses, acceptance of
smoking in public, and
unchaperoned dating
were results.
The culmination of
women’s gains came
after the war when each
country extended
suffrage.
War Outside of Europe (#13)



Because many of the participants in WWI
had colonies around the globe, this war truly
took on global impacts.
The British controlled numerous colonies
and used their naval supremacy to protect
those territories and attack German
colonies in Africa, China, and the Pacific
islands.
Most importantly, they established an
effective blockade that would deprive the
Central Powers of valuable food and
resources for the war effort.
The Armenian Genocide (#14)
The Ottoman Turks (part
of the Central Powers),
opened up war fronts in
the southern region of
Russia.
 After severe losses, the
Turkish government sought
to blame minorities in
their empire, mainly
Armenian Christians.
 The government lashed
out in a campaign of
violence, killing as many as
a million Armenians from
1915-1918.

U.S. Entry into WWI (#15)



By 1917, much of the war in Europe had
settled into a stalemate, especially on the
Western Front. U.S. entry in that year would
turn the tide for the Allied nations.
When the war broke out in 1914, most of
the American public and its leaders were
indifferent toward the cause. In fact, U.S.
president Woodrow Wilson had won reelection in 1916 on the campaign slogan, “He
kept us out of war!”
That would all change in 1917.
U.S. Entry into WWI (#15)

Reasons for U.S. entry into WWI include:
◦ 1) British propaganda efforts. America was naturally proBritish due to our common heritage, but the British
launched a massive campaign of propaganda against
Germany that influenced American public opinion.
◦ 2) Germany’s need to attack ships with their submarines
to enforce their blockade on Britain and France led to the
sinking of U.S. ships and death of U.S. citizens, greatly
angering our nation.
◦ 3) The Zimmerman Telegram – Fearful of American entry
into the war, Germany proposed an alliance with Mexico
that would require Mexico to attack the US in order to
reclaim land lost during the Mexican-American War.
Germany would send financial and military support. This
telegram was intercepted by British agents and sent to the
US. We declared war shortly after (April 6, 1917).
Armistice (#16)



U.S. entry into the war was just in time. Russia had
pulled out of the war in November 1917 and the U.S.
entered in April 1917. A German drive on the western
front was stalled by the arrival of American troops.
With casualties mounting and their armies losing
ground, the Germans signed an armistice on Nov.
11,1918.
Many German citizens were enraged due to the fact
that German propaganda in the months before that
promised a victory “within weeks”. Much of the blame
was transferred by the government to socialist groups
and Jewish politicians (because they were minorities).
This would become a rallying cry for Hitler in the
1920s.
American newspaper headline
Allied representatives at Armistice
signing (Nov.11, 1918)
Armistice Day
The War’s Effect (#17)

The effects of WWI prove its devastation:
◦ 1) At least 10 million dead and 20 million
wounded. An influenza outbreak in 1918 killed
millions of civilians as well.
◦ 2) Hundreds of billions of dollars of damage
was inflicted on cities, railroads, bridges, farms,
and factories.
◦ 3) This devastation led to a global economic
downturn into the mid-1920’s and
contributed to the outbreak of the Great
Depression.
The Paris Peace Conference (#18)



Once the armistice was signed in Nov. 1918,
the victorious nations had to settle upon a
plan for peace by signing a treaty.
Over the next 7 months, representatives
met in Paris to hammer out the details of
the historic treaty.
Though there were diplomats from all over
the globe, Georges Clemenceau (France),
David Lloyd George (Britain), and Woodrow
Wilson (United States) were the undisputed
leaders of the conference. They were known
simply as “The Big Three”.
THE BIG THREE
From left to right: David Lloyd George, Georges
Clemenceau, and Woodrow Wilson
Paris Peace Conference Cont’d
(#20)
Because the Germans had so many overseas
colonies and the Ottoman empire controlled
so many lands, representatives from all these
territories showed up expecting to be
granted self-determination.
 This was an idea set forth by Woodrow
Wilson that people had the right to choose
their own form of government.
Unfortunately, Wilson only thought this
applied to white people, so Arabs, Indians,
Vietnamese, and Africans did not get this
privilege.

Paris Peace Conference Cont’d
The French were determined to punish
Germany for their aggression in WWI.
Germany had invaded their country twice
in the span of 50 yrs. and they wanted to
make sure it did not happen again.
 The French premier, Clemenceau, actually
ran his re-election campaign on the slogan
“Make Germany Pay”. He won
convincingly.

Paris Peace Conference Cont’d
(#19)

There were four major punishments for
Germany.
◦ 1) War-Guilt Clause: Germany had to admit to
sole responsibility for starting the war.
◦ 2) Reparations: Huge war-time damage fees that
Germany was required to pay to the nations it
assaulted (33 billion in US currency)
◦ 3) All German colonies were stripped from them
and given to members of the Allies.
◦ 4) The German military was severely decreased.
They could only have 100,000 soldiers and a
limited number of battleships, but no submarines.
German Economic Crisis in the
1920’s
The Versailles Diktat (#21 and #22)
The final treaty to come out of the Paris Peace
Conference was the Treaty of Versailles (signed at the
Versailles Palace).
 For Germany, it was nothing more than a diktat, or
dictated peace, with no room for negotiation. (#21)
 German representatives were not even invited to
Paris until May of 1919 and were never consulted or
asked for input.
 Additionally, they were lodged in the most run down
hotel in Paris, brought in through the servants door
to the palace and made to stand for hours while the
treaty was read to them. (#22)

SIGNING OF THE TREATY
OF VERSAILLES (JUNE 28,
1919)
The Hall of Mirrors
What about Austria-Hungary and
the Ottoman Empire (#23-25)



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Germany was not the only country punished. AustriaHungary’s empire was carved into several new nations
(Czechoslovakia, Hungary,Yugoslavia). (#23)
The Ottoman lands in the Middle East were not given
independence, but instead became mandates
(territories whose control was swapped from one
nation to another) of Britain and France. (#25)
Italy and China lost land despite fighting with the Allies.
Russia lost more land than any nation even though they
were members of the original Triple Entente’. Because
they quit the war early and were now Communist, they
were an easy target for punishment. (#24)
American response to the Treaty
(#26)


Even the United States public and legislature
were worried about the faults within the
treaty, but mainly they did not want to tie
themselves to European affairs in the future.
Despite the fact that Woodrow Wilson was
one of the main contributors to the treaty,
Congress refused to sign. The main issue
they were worried about was the League
of Nations, an international peace-keeping
body, that had been Wilson’s idea all along.
The U.S. signed a separate treaty with
Germany.
AMERICAN POLITICAL
CARTOON RESPONDING
TO THE TREATY
WWI’s impact on nationalism (#27
and 28)
When the war broke out, European powers
moved quickly to bring in soldiers from their
colonies. These territories were promised selfrule or independence for their cooperation.
 As you probably guessed, when the war ended,
European powers repeatedly reneged on their
promises.
 The combination of broken promises with a
limited number of European military officials
present (because they had been recalled to
Europe for the war) led to intense nationalist
movements.

British and French Holdings in WWI
Indian Nationalism (#29)
Because India was so valuable to the British
Empire, the Brits were not willing to part with it
despite the promise they made before the war.
 Western-educated Indians, many educated in
British schools that had been built in India,
demanded more political authority and formed
the Indian National Congress Party.
 British officials supported this group initially, for
they saw it as a forum where the opinions of
educated Indians could be heard, thereby
watering down any potential political unrest.

Indian Nationalism Cont’d (#30)
Despite the creation of this political body for
representation, all Indians were united in a
common bond, their disdain for British rule.
 This was chiefly due to British racism. No matter
their caste, language, or religion, the British
viewed all Indians as inferior.
 What began to emerge as a result was a
powerful force, Indian unity. This
nationalism was something the
subcontinent had never experienced
before. It would eventually win them their
independence.

Violent or Non-violent protest??
(#31a)

The methods for bringing about change in India
were as varied as the people themselves.
However, they more or less fell into two groups,
militant or non-violent protests.
◦ Radical Hindu leader, B.G. Tilak, promoted a
nationalism built upon intense Hindu beliefs (ignoring
Indian Muslims).
◦ He used religious festivals for Hindu gods as a
platform for mass demonstration.
◦ He endorsed several tactics like boycotting British
goods, refusal of Indians to serve in the British
military, and violence if the British refused to
cooperate.
Violent or Non-violent protest??
(#31a)
Tilak’s message caught on and by the 1920’s there were
frequent terrorist attacks against British officials and
government buildings.
 In response, the British passed the Rowlatt Act, which
placed severe restrictions on several Indian rights including
the right to assemble.
 When Sikh pilgrims gathered for a religious festival, the
British saw it as a direct threat and violation of the Rowlatt
Act. British troops opened fire on these unarmed pilgrims,
killing between 350 or 1,000 (depending on which side you
ask). This event came to be known as the Amritsar Massacre.
 Local protests escalated as all Indians (regardless of religious
affiliation) realized how their rights were being denied.
Instead of the violent resistance approach, this time the
method of protest was one of non-violence, spearheaded by
Mohandas Gandhi.

Amritsar Massacre
Violent or Non-violent protest??
(#31b)

Gandhi is the most well known revolutionary figure in Indian history, for good
cause.

Born into an Indian merchant caste, he attended law school in London. As a result,
he was an expert on British law, including individual rights guaranteed by their
constitution.

Starting in the early 1900s, he took a job in South Africa, where he fought for the
rights of a large Indian minority population. His work was so successful amongst the
locals, that he earned the title “Mahatma”, which means “high-souled or venerable”.

He returned to India in 1915 to begin organizing resistance to oppressive British
laws, fighting for increased women’s rights, arguing against untouchability, and most
importantly, calling for Indian self-rule.

A great example of his non-violent resistance is the Salt March of 1930. The
British passed a tax on salt in India, and forbade locals from harvesting salt from
seawater on their own, many times using force to impede this process.

Gandhi led a march of thousands of protesters to the Indian Ocean in order to
gather saltwater for the purpose of salt production, completely ignoring this British
tax he saw as unjust. He was imprisoned for almost 1 year, but the protest drew
international attention.
The Salt March 1930
Gandhi, “Father of India”



Physically speaking, he
did not embody a
freedom fighter.
He was of average height
and very slight of build.
However, he was
extremely intelligent,
well-organized, confident
and articulate.
What he lacked in
physical stature, he made
up for in his
commitment to morality
and self-discipline.
Violent or Non-violent protest??
(#31b)
The most common forms of non-violent
protest Gandhi employed included
boycotts against British goods, strikes,
noncooperation, and mass
demonstrations.
 While it was peaceful, it was also very
aggressive, as Indians actively disobeyed
British laws that they deemed unjust.
Gandhi called it satyagraha, or “truth
force”.

The Zionist Movement

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


There was also significant unrest in the Middle East as a result of
the Treaty of Versailles.
As we have seen, in order to obtain support for the war, the British
made dozens of promises that they never intended to keep. Two of
these pertained to the Arab heartlands of the Ottoman Empire.
First of all, Arab independence was promised in exchange for their
support against the Ottomans. Instead, Britain and France made
mandates out of these territories. As a result, they faced stiff
resistance in places such as Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Iraq.
They had also promised prominent and wealthy Jews a homeland in
Palestine for their support.
So to recap, the British managed to promise Arabs their
independence and Jews a homeland (taken from Arab territory).
They failed to follow through on either.
Middle East Division
The Zionist movement (#32)
As a result of these promises to Jewish
leaders, a Zionist movement sprang up
after WWI. This was essentially a call for
the Allied powers to create a Jewish
homeland in Palestine (Arab territory at
the time, but it had once been the
kingdom of Israel)
 The World Zionist Organization was
created to rally for this cause.

The Zionist Movement (#33)

The Zionist Movement was strengthened by three
other events of the late 1800s and early 1900s:
◦ 1) The Balfour Declaration- a promise by British foreign
secretary, Lord Balfour, to promote the establishment of a
Jewish homeland in Palestine after the war (despite
promises to Arabs that they could control their own
lands).
◦ 2) Pogroms- in the late 1800’s, a wave of violent assaults
on the Jewish community in eastern Europe (particularly
Russia and Romania) convinced Jewish leaders that their
own homeland was necessary to avoid these persecutions.
◦ 3) the Dreyfus Affair- Alfred Dreyfus, a French army officer
and Jew was accused (falsely) of selling military secrets to
Germany. He was not offered a trial and was treated
inhumanely in the months after his arrest. The event drew
worldwide attention toward the anti-Semitism in Europe.