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Chapter 23: TRANSOCEANIC ENCOUNTERS & GLOBAL CONNECTIONS Chapter Outline A. The European reconnaissance of the world's oceans (p. 598) 1. Motives for exploration (598-600) a. Resource-poor Portugal searched for fresh resources From the 13th-15th centuries they ventured out onto Atlantic Established sugar plantations in the Atlantic islands b. The lure of direct trade w/out Muslim intermediaries Asian spice trade African gold, ivory, & slaves c. Missionary efforts of European Christians New Testament urged Christians to spread the faith throughout the world Crusades & holy wars against Muslims in early centuries Reconquista of Spain inspired Iberian crusaders d. Various motives combined & reinforced each other 2. The technology of exploration (600-604) a. Sternpost rudder & 2 types of sails enabled ships to advance against wind b. Navigational instruments Magnetic compass Astrolabe (& cross/back staffs) c. Knowledge of winds & currents enabled Europeans to travel reliably Trade winds north & south of the equator Regular monsoons in Indian Ocean basin The volta do mar (maps on 602-603) 3. Voyages of exploration: From the Mediterranean to the Atlantic (604-606) a. Dom Henrique, king of Portugal, encouraged exploration of west Africa Portuguese conquered Ceuta in north Africa in 1415 Soon after, established trading posts at Sao Jorge da Mina, west Africa Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope & entered the Indian Ocean, 1488 b. Vasco da Gama of Portugal Crossed Indian Ocean; reached India, 1497; brought back huge profit Portuguese merchants built a trading post at Calicut, 1500 c. Christopher Columbus, Genoese mariner Proposed sailing to Asian markets by a western route Sponsored by Catholic kings of Spain; sailed to Bahamas in 1492 d. Columbus's voyage enabled other mariners to link east & west hemispheres. 4. Voyages of exploration: from the Atlantic to the Pacific (606-609) a. Ferdinand Magellan, Portuguese navigator, in service of Spain Crossed both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans 1519-1522 One ship out of five completed the circumnavigation of the world Magellan died in conflict in a Philippine island on the way home 2. Exploration of the Pacific took 3 centuries to complete Trade route between the Philippines and Mexico, by Spanish merchants English mariners searched for a northwest passage from Europe to Asia 3. Captain James Cook (1728-1779), British explorer Led 3 expeditions to the Pacific, the Arctic, Australia; died in Hawaii By late 18th century, Europeans had reasonably accurate geographical knowledge of the world B. Trade & conflict in early modern Asia (609-610) 1. Trading-post empires (610-614) a. Portuguese built more than 50 trading posts between west Africa & east Asia b. Alfonso d'Alboquerque, 16th-c. Portuguese commander in Indian Ocean Seized Hormuz in 1508, Goa in 1510, and Melaka in 1511 Forced all merchant ships to purchase safe-conduct passes Portuguese hegemony grew weak by the late 16th century c. English & Dutch established parallel trading posts in Asian coasts English in India, the Dutch at Cape Town & Indonesia Sailed faster, cheaper, & more powerful ships than Portuguese Created an efficient commercial organization--the joint-stock company d. Formation of powerful, profitable joint-stock companies The English East India Company, founded in 1600 The United East India Company (VOC), Dutch company founded1602 Both were private enterprises, enjoyed gov’t support, little oversight 2. European conquests in SE Asia (614-617) a. Spanish conquest of the Philippines led by Legazpi, 1565 b. Manila, the bustling port city, became the Spanish capital Spanish & Filipino residents massacred Chinese merchants by thousands Christianity throughout the archipelago Muslim resistance on southern island of Mindanao c. Conquest of Java by the Dutch Began with VOC trading city of Batavia in 1619 Policy: secure VOC monopoly over spice production & trade Enormous monopoly profit led to prosperity of Netherlands, 17th century *d. Foundations of the Russian Empire in Asia (617-620) mid 16th c.—took over several khanates in central Asia Siberian furs desired; came across 26 ethnic tribes (Yakuts) Gov’t sponsored Orthodox Christian missionaries w/ little success 3. Commercial rivalries & the Seven Years' War (620-621) a. Global competition & conflict Dutch forces expelled most Portuguese merchants from SE Asia Conflict between English & French merchants over control of Indian cotton & tea from Ceylon, early 18th century Competition in the Americas among English, French, & Spanish forces b. The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) In Europe: British & Prussia against France, Austria, & Russia In India: fighting between British & French forces, each w/ local allies In the Caribbean: Spanish & French united to limit British expansion In North America: fights between British & French forces c. Outcome: British hegemony British gained control of India, Canada, Florida In Europe, Prussian armies held off massive armies of the enemies War paved the way for the British empire in the 19th century C. Global exchanges (p. 621) 1. The Columbian Exchange (621-624) a. Biological exchanges between Old & New Worlds Columbian Exchange--global diffusion of plants, food crops, animals, human populations, & disease pathogens after Columbus's voyages Permanently altered the earth's environment b. Epidemic diseases--smallpox, measles, diphtheria, whooping cough, & influenza--led to staggering population losses Smallpox reduced Aztec population by 95% in one century after 1519 Contagious diseases had same horrifying effects in the Pacific islands Between 1500-1800, 100 million people died of imported diseases c. New foods & domestic animals Wheat, horses, cattle, sheep, goats, & chickens went to Americas American crops included maize, potatoes, beans, tomatoes, peppers, peanuts Growth of world population: 425 million (1500)—900 million (1800) d. Migration of human populations Enslaved Africans were largest group of migrants from 1500-1800 Sizable migration from Europe to the Americas 19th century, European migration to South Africa, Australia, & Pacific Islands 2. The origins of global trade (624-626) a. Transoceanic trade: European merchants created a genuinely global trading system of supply & demand, linking the ports of the world b. The Manila galleons Sleek, fast, heavily armed ships that sailed between Manila & Mexico Asian luxury goods to Mexico, silver from Mexico to China