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Е.И. Курашвили, И.И. Кондратьева
B.C. Штрунова
АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК
для студентов-физиков
Второй этап обучения
Учебное пособие
Издание второе, переработанное и
дополненное
Москва
Астрель • ACT
2005
УДК 811.111 (075.8) ББК
81.2 Англ-923 К48
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Санитарно-эпидемиологическое заключение
77.99.02.953.Д.000577.02.04 от 03.02.2004 г.
№
Курашвили, Е.И.
К48 Английский язык для студентов -физиков. Второй этап обучения : учеб.
пособие / Е.И. Курашвили, И.И. Кондратьева, B.C. Штрунова. — 2-е изд.,
персраб. и доп. — М.: Астрель: ACT, 2005. - 189, |3] с.
ISBN 5-17-019110-3 (ООО «Издательство АСТ») ISBN 5-271-06611-8
(ООО «Издательство Астрель»)
Основная цель пособия — совершенствование навыков и умений в различных
видах чтения, а также обучение устным формам обшения по научной тематике.
Задания к текстам имеют проблемный характер и ставят целью развивать у
студентов логическое мышление и умение вести дискуссию.
Оригинальные тексты пособия представляют практический и познавательный
интерес для студентов технических вузов физического профиля.
Книга содержит четыре тематических раздела (20 Units): 1. Научно-технические
и технологические достижения и общество; 2. Теории происхождения Вселенной; 3.
Мир субатомных частиц; 4. Современные научные открытия, теории и технологии,
а также дополнительные тексты для чтения (Supplementary Reading).
УДК 811.111 (075.8)
ББК 81.2 Англ-923
ISBN 5-17-019110-3 (ООО
«Издательство АСТ»)
ISBN 5-271-06611-8
(ООО «Издательство Астрель»)
2003 (ООО «Издательство Астрель»,
2003
>Е.И. Курашвили, И.И.
Кондратьева, B.C. Штрунова,
READING
• Read the passage below looking for the ideas concerning the "good" and the "harm" of
scientific and technological discoveries.
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGICAL PROGRESS IN
MODERN SOCIETY
Natural science is the main characteristic feature distinguishing the present
civilization from the other civilizations in the past. From its early beginnings in the
sixteenth century, the developments of science have influenced the course of w estern
civilization more and more until today it plays'^ most dominant role. *It is not much
of an exaggeration to say that we live in a world that, materially and intellectually,
has been created by science.
This point is easy to illustrate on the materia l level. One merely needs to mention
the telephone, the radio, the television, the automobile, and the airplane, or any of
the count/ess devices invented by the application of science. There is hardly an
article used in the homes, in the places of work, or in the places of enjoyment that
has not been modified by technology based on science; the means of communication
that bind the continents into a single community depend on scientific know-how;
without modern sanitation it would be impossible to have large centres of population;
without modern industry and agriculture it would be impossible to feed, to clothe,
and to provide the "abundant life" to this large population.
There is, however, another part of the story, less obvious and less well known,
but far more important. It is a story of expanding intellectual horizons — the impact
of science on the mind of a man. *Fundamentally, science is an intellectual
enterprise, an attempt to understand the world in a particular way. All the
developments mentioned above are but the results, the outcomes of this intellectual
activity.
Over the past 150 years the range of human knowledge has been doubled every
twelve to fifteen years. In 1930 man knew four times as much as he did in 1900; by
1960 his knowledge had grown sixteenfold, and by the year 2000 it was a hundred
times what it had been a century previously.
The second part of the twentieth century brought a number of technical
innovations, which are still very young but which are taken so much for granted that
it is as if they have always existed.
In the fifties of the last century hardly anyone would probably have believed that
we should be able to sit at home and watch astronauts walking in space or that people
could be kept alive by the heart of a dead man.
The transistor was not invented until 1948. This piece of electronic equipment
found wide use in space technology, computers, transistor radios, medical
instruments, television sets — in fact, wherever precise control and modulation of
electrical signals was required. It seemed absurd to suppose
Parti
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGICAL
PROGRESS AND SOCIETY
Concern for man himself and his fate must always form the
chief interest of all technical endeavours, concern for the
greatest unsolved problems of the organization of labour and the
distribution of goods — in order that the creations of our minds
shall be a blessing and not a curse to mankind. Never forget this
in the midst of your diagrams and equations.
Albert Einstein
INTRODUCTORY UNIT
Before reading the passage, let's ask the students of your group their opinions on some
aspects of the problem of technological progress.
PUBLIC OPINION POLL
1. What do you think of science? Do science and technology do more good than
harm, more harm than good, or about equal?
Opinion
More good than harm
Men
Women
Total
More harm than good
About equal
2. Leaving out military applications, do you think that scientific discoveries can
have very dangerous effects?
Opinion
Yes
Men
Women
Total
No
• Discuss the results of the public opinion poll with your partners. Give reasons for your
opinion.
ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ
Данное пособие предназначено для студентов II курса технических вузов
физического профиля и является продолжением учебника «Анг лийский язык для
студентов-физиков. Первый этап обучения». Изда -ниетрстьс, переработанное
(автор Е.И. Курашвили). М., 2001.
Цель учебного пособия — подготовить студентов к работе с литера турой по
специальности и ведению беседы по научной тематике с ис пользованием
методического приема, который получил название «учеб ная дискуссия».
Предусматривается дальнейшее совершенствование навыков и умений в
различных видах чтения, а также обучение устным формам общения по научной
тематике на материале предложенныхтек -стов и упражнений с изобразительной
опорой в виде диаграмм, таблиц и логических схем. Задания к текстам, в
основном, имеют проблемный характер и ставят целью развивать у студентов
логическое мышление и умение вести дискуссию.
Учебное пособие разработано на основе оригинальных текстов по темам,
представляющим практический и познавательный интерес для студентов
физического профиля, и состоит из 20 уроков основною кур са и 10 уроков
дополнительною чтения, рассчитанных примерно на 60 -70 часов аудиторных
занятий.
Тематически тексты уроков сгруппированы в три раздела, и при прохождении каждого раздела предусматривается проведение учебной кон ференции
на основе пройденной тематики.
Раздел I посвящен научным и технологическим достижениям XX столетия и
трудно разрешимым проблемам экологии и об щества в целом. Затрагивается
вопрос об ответственности ученого перед обществом.
В разделе 11 обсуждаются современные теории происхождения Все ленной, а
в разделе III — микромир элементарных частиц.
В разделе IV представлены некоторые современные теории, открытия и
технологии в области физики.
В каждом уроке представлено два тематически связанных текста: текст А,
предназначенный для самостоятельной работы студентов и пред полагающий
изучающее
чтение
(детальное
понимание
читаемого),
и
текст
В,
предназначенный для ознакомительного и просмотрового чте ния в аудитории. В
конце пособия дастся поурочный словарь.
Авторы
that it could ever be replaced, however, the invention oflCs (integrated circuits) in
1958 brought in a new era of change in the field, so fundam ental that it already has
the characteristics of a second industrial revolution.
A mere twelve years separated the launching of the Soviet satellite Sputnik 1 in
1957 and man's first landing on the Moon in 1969. The first long-term orbital station
Salyut launched in 1971 opened a new era in space research, providing the possibility
of conducting investigations in the field of astrophysics, space technology, medicine,
biology, etc. under conditions inconceivable on the earth. Another period of ten years
and in 1981 we could witness the launching of a typically new cosmic vehicle — the
Shuttle.
It is not difficult to continue with other examples but the point is clear. Events
such as these were characteristic of the rate of technological development in the
second half of the 20th century. *They suggest that the technological innovations we
are to experience during the next twenty years to come may well surpass our wildest
fantasies and today's tomorrow may well become tomorrow's the day before
yesterday. Science occupies a central position in modern society. It dominates man's
whole existence. Research and innovations in technology should improve society's
living and working conditions and remedy the negative effects of technical and social
changes.
*Reccnt developments of nuclear weapons, satellites, space platforms and
intercontinental ballistic missiles have attracted, and rightly so, public attention
throughout the world. *Thcy make wars of annihilation possible and forcily thrust
upon us the necessity of coming to an understanding with the other nations. It is not
merely a matter of peace, but, rather, poses the question of the very survival of the
human race.
•
Answer the following questions using the information from the text or from any other
sources.
1. What means of communication were mentioned in the text?
2. What technological innovations of the 20th century made communication
between continents possible?
3. How do science and technology influence people?
4. At what rate was scientific knowledge developing in the 20th century?
5. What are the potential dangers ofscientific discoveries?
6. Are science and technology a blessing for a man or a curse?
•
Try to guess the meaning of the words and word combinations given in italics in the text.
•
Translate the sentences marked with an asterisk.
•
Think and say a few words about:
3
a) the rate of the human knowledge development basing on the figures below:
1900
1930 -> 1960 -> 2000 1 >4-» 16 —» 100
b) space research development.
• Read the two summaries below. Which summary reflects the ideas of the passage more
accurately? Why is the other one not good? Is it because
a) it is too short and the main idea is not expressed clearly?
b) it is too long and there are too many details and the key ideas do not stand out?
c) the wrong key ideas have been selected?
Summary 1
Natural science and technology play a dominant role in modern society. The
range of human knowledge doubles every twelve to fifteen years. Research and
innovations should improve living and working conditions and remedy the nega tive
effects of technical and social changes.
Summary 2
Natural science is the main characteristic feature of the present civilization.
Science and technology have modified our homes, places of work and enjoyment,
means of communications. Science expands man's intellectual horizons. The range of
human knowledge doubles every twelve years and by the year 2000 it was a hundred
times what it had been a century previously. The second half of the twentieth century
brought a number of technical innovations — transistor, ICs, satellites, etc. Recent
developments of nuclear weapons make wars of annihilation possible and pose the
question of the survival of the human race.
UNIT ONE
GRAMMAR: THE PASSIVE VOICE
The Passive Voice
tobe + V 3 (V c< ] )
Simple
Present
Past
Future
Continuous
Perfect
I am asked/sent
1 am being asked/sent I have been asked/sent
1 was asked/sent
I was being asked/sent 1 had been asked/sent
I shall be asked/sent
1 shall have been asked/sent
ОСОБЕННОСТИ ПЕРЕВОДА НЕКОТОРЫХ ТИПОВ ГЛАГОЛОВ В PASSIVE
VOICE
а) В ряде случаев при сказуемом в пассиве, выраженном глаголами типа
to show, to give, to tell, to offer, to permit и др., подлежащее английского
предложения может быть переведено на русский язы к только косвенным дополнением в форме дательного или винительного падежа.
We were shown the new laboratory. Нам
показали новую лабораторию.
б) Если после сказуемого, выраженного глаголом в пассиве, стоитотде ляемый предлог (т.е. предлог без последующих слов, относящихся к
нему), при переводе соответствующий русский предлог ставится в
начале предложения и, таким образом, подлежащее английского
предложения переводится предложным дополнением.
This article is often referred to. На эту
статью часто ссылаются.
4
Запомните значения следующих глаголов:
to act on/upon — дейстиопать, нлиять на to deal with —
рассматривать, излагать, иметь дело с to depend on/upon —
зависеть от, полагаться на to rely on/upon — полагаться на
to refer to — ссылаться на, относиться к, обращаться к
•
Translate into Russian.
1. The new phenomenon has been much written about.
2. His last research is still being spoken about.
3. The new equipment was sent for.
4. This theory is often referred to.
5. That problem must be thoroughly dealt with.
6. A charged particle is acted upon by forces.
в) При переводе пассивных форм английских переходных глаголов, которым в
русском языке соответствуют глаголы с предложным до полнением, предлог
ставится перед словом, являющимся в англий ском языке подлежащим.
The lecture wasfollowedby an experiment. За
лекцией последовал экспери мент.
•
Translate into Russian.
1. Our life is more and more influenced by science.
2. The performance of the device has been affected by many factors.
3.
Our letter was immediately answered.
4. Some of the results of the experiment are still strongly doubted.
5. All the questions asked were answered in detail.
6.
The experiment was followed very carefully.
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
V + -ion (-tion, -sion) = N
accelerate + -ion = acceleration
•
Translate the following nouns and give the corresponding verbs.
explanation, utilization, evolution, relation, computation, direction, oscillation,
division, collection, emission, civilization, exaggeration, communication
N + -al =A proportion + -al = proportional
Q
•
Think of nouns corresponding to the following adjectives and translate them into
Russian.
original,
directional,
universal,
gravitational, accidental, natural
regional,
centrifugal,
conversational,
READING (1A)
•
Look through the first and the last paragraphs and find the sentences supporting the idea
of the title.
TOMORROW IS NOW
The Julian calendar recorded the year 2001 — the beginning of the 21st century.
It was far more than a chronological event, for the meaning and importance of
chronological time is less vital now than ever before in history. Time began for man
more than a million years ago and until today it has been the mover and shaker of
man's destiny. However, the slow pace of nature has been augmented by the
incredible speed of the developing technolo gy since the last third of the 20th century.
The technological innovations are revolutionizing our lives more than anything else.
Events, inventions, moralities — all slide and change so swiftly that we seem to be
rushing at tomorrow and our future has alr eady arrived. In that sense the 21st century
is already here, for the responsibility for the events and technology that will be
produced is being formed today.
It is possible to extrapolate from certain seemingly well -rooted trends and
technologies and thus gain a glimpse at the very least of the possible tomorrows that
await us. The increasing sophistication of the rocketry, for example, prognosticates a
continued assault on space. At the same time, we have virtually run out of frontiers
on land and will probably turn at long last to the sea that blankets seven tenths of the
earth's surface. *We shall ask more questions — at the beginnings of things, and
where they are headed. *We shall have far more and better tools with which to pry
loose the answers from a reluctant (unwilling) universe. "How did it all begin?" is
certain to be a major intellectual question at which the cosmologists of the 21st
century will launch themselves with all the exotica that a space -oriented society can
offer. X-ray astronomy, gamma-ray astronomy, orbiting astronomical observatories,
and the stable, atmosphere-free far side of the moon, as the finest of all observatories
will be the disciplines and the platforms we shall use to peer out into space and back
into time to the origin of all things.
And what might man find there? No one today has answers. We can safely say
only that the questions will be raised and countless voyages in search of answers will
be undertaken. In truth, the 21st century will probably be a new age of explora tion, as
men ask the questions they have always asked, but to which they have ncverbefore
had the means of seeking the answers.
The 21st century will surely provide those means. Already, the laser, the
computer, and atomic energy have found their ways int o our lives and are already
being used for the tasks of today. These same tools will be applied to new tasks of the
21 st century, tasks we cannot even conceive of today.
In every area of human endeavour the future offers dazzling capabilities for
exploring and understanding ourselves and the world about us. The question is in fact
not so much what we will learn, but rather what shall we do with the incredible
mountains of knowledge we are at this very moment heaping together. Shall we
explore the other planets of the solar system or the depths of our oceans? Shall we
control the weather or the human mind?
In all probability, we shall accept every challenge the human mind can find, in
deepest space or inside its own cortex (кора головною мозга). These are simply
broad areas of probability, yet it is to these only that wc can look in the hope of
seeing where we are headed. For the technological avalanche threatens to inundate
(затоплять) us by generating an ever more elaborate technology and in the process
creating problems that could not have been foreseen. Moreover, the solution to these
problems lies in creating a still more sophisticated technology, which creates still
more problems not by failing in its designed goals but by succeeding brilliantly. With
every new technological development there comes a new set of unforeseen problems,
and we have reached a point where we cannot afford unforeseen problems, lest they
outstrip (обгонять, опережать, iipeвосходить) our intellectual capacity to deal with
them. Wc will soon learn to plumb the depths of the human gene and so present to
nature on a molecular level our demands for the future of man. Shall we eliminate
diabetes from the human race by substituting one gene for another? But what effect
might that have on the other genes within the constellation of chromosomes that make
up the blueprint of man? Can we determine the effect of changes we will make in the
heart of a molecule or in the atomic nucleus of a star?
The 21st century will demand extreme caution and scientific discipline. For the
targets of exploration are almost within our grasp, and the tools that will extend our
reach are also close at hand. Wc shall pursue (run aft er) knowledge; it will be the
preoccupation of the 21st-century man. The only questions remaining concern the
uses to which such knowledge will be put and (he price we must pay for it.
•
Read carefully the second paragraph of the text and say a few words about the possible
fields of investigation in the 21st century.
•
Read the passage carefully and find answers to the following questions.
1. What factor is augmenting the slow pace of nature and making us rush at
tomorrow?
2. What makes the author prognosticate a continuous assault on space in future?
3. Why does the author predict great researches of the seas and oceans?
4. What tools of investigation of the universe has the author mentioned?
5. Why is the author cautious while speaking of new technologies?
6
•
Look through the passage and find English equivalents for the following Russian phrases.
время было вершителем и мерилом судьбы человека; медленная по ступь;
ожидающие нас возможные альтернативы завтрашнего дня; на ступление на
космос; выведать ответы у неподдающейся природы; мы примем любой вызов;
поток технологической информации угрожает зат опить нас; заглянуть в
космическое пространство; задачи, которые мы даже не можем и представить
сегодня
•
Topics for discussion.
1. Our future has already arrived.
2. The shape of tomorrow can well be foreseen.
3. The main fields of investigation will be the space and the seas and oceans.
4. Among the theoretical problems the main will be the origin of the Universe.
5. Man should be cautious about new technologies.
CLASSWORK
READING (IB)
•
Read the passage as fast as possible. FVom the four titles presented below choose the one
which better expresses the main idea. Explain your choice.
/.
2.
3.
4.
The development of scientific research.
This magic rate of growth.
Never mind quality.
Publish or perish.
Scientific research became so important in the 20th century that it is no longer
possible to describe any human society without according it its rightful place.
Scientific activity, with all its technical and economic consequences, is at present
passing through a period of particularly rapid development as compared with other
human activities and may, broadly speaking, be said to be doubling in the course of
each decade. This law of growth can be deduced from a fairly wide variety of
statistical facts such as: the number of original publications appearing in the
scientific journals and the number of abstracts published in a branch of science such
as physics. It is also found to be true if the criterion adopted is the number of
scientific personnel working in laboratories. Lastly, the number of significant
scientific discoveries made each year can be estimated, and though such an estimate
must, of course, be somewhat arbitrary, the result will again show the same rate of
growth. A few figures will support the information given above. The number of
scientific journals and periodicals which was about 100 at the beginning of the 19th
century, reached 1,000 in 1850, more than 10,000 in 1900, approached 100,000 in
1960 and - if the rate of growth remains constant — should be in the neighbourhood
of a million at the end of the century.
If we turn to the length of scientific papers, it is getting out of hand. In the past 35
years, the length of paper in fourdisciplines has increased by an average of 64 per
cent. The average letter is 30 per cent longer today than it was 10 years ago, despite
frequent editorial decrees that they should be short. To examine the problem the most
prestigious publications in physics, chemistry, astronomy, and mathematics from
three countries - the US, Britain and Japan - were studied. Between 1950 and
1980/83, the length of papers increased appreciably i n each country and for all
publications. Values ranged from 13 per cent for the Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society to 115 percent forlhc Journal of the Mathematical Society of
Japan. Chemistry papers grew the most (93 per cent), with astronomy second (82
percent), then mathematics (77 percent), and physics (27 per cent). National averages
were: Japan, up 85 per cent; the US, up 65 percent; and Great Britain, up 45 percent.
The jump in the length of letters is even more dramatic. The average increase over
the last 20 years is 74 per cent.
But how should we interpret those findings? Mainly, three reasons are detected
for long papers. First, it is easier to write them. As Churchill put it, he needed a week
to prepare a five minute speech on an important subject, but he could talk for an hour
immediately. Secondly, scientists arc rewarded for overwriting. Thirdly, writing
today is sloppier (неряшливый). Some people suspect that modern authors have to
use more words to express a quantum of thought than earlier writers, because they
have not learnt English grammar as thoroughly. Though, not everyone agrees with
this interpretation. For example, Helmut Abt, longtime editor of the Astrophysical
Journal believes that the length of papers has little to do with the three main points.
He says that the answer lies in the scientific content (содержание). Science is more
complex now. Instruments yield far more information and more space is needed for
explanation. Many papers that would have been acceptable for publication 20 years
ago arc not acceptable now because they do not have enough conte nt.
•
•
Try to guess the meaning of the words given in italics in the text.
Think and say a few words about:
a) the rate of growth of scientific journals and periodicals:
1800 -> 1850 1900 I960 ^ 2000 100 ->
1,000 -» 10,000 -» 100,000 —> ?
b) the length of scientific papers and letters.
HOMEWORK
(to be done in writing)
1. Translate into Russian. Pay attention to the Passive Voice.
1. The entire industrial and agricultural structure of our life is determined by our
scientific knowledge.
2. An army of highly trained men and women is required by our immense
industrial complex for its mere maintenance (эксплуатация) to say nothing
about its further development.
3. After World War 11 public attention throughout the world was attracted to
atomic and hydrogen bombs.
4. More recently our attention has been focused on satellites, space -platforms,
and intercontinental ballistic missiles.
5. Science is more and more deeply involved into war problems.
6. This less-well-known fact needs to be told and the average citizen should be
informed about it.
7. In connection with these facts many pressing problems must be faced and
solved.
8. The question of the very survival of the human race is imposed on our
generation.
2. Translate into English. Use the following adjectives: out-of-date, valuable, reliable,
useful, practicable.
1.
Нами только что получена ценная информация о...
2.
Наша лаборатория будетскоро переоборудована.
3.
Разработаны реальные планы, касающиеся...
4.
Выдвинуты полезные идеи...
5.
Все старое оборудование будет демонтировано (to demount).
6.
Новое надежное оборудование уже разработано нашими инже нерами.
7.
Оно будет смонтировано к концу юла.
8.
Мы полагаем (believe), что будут получены новые результаты о...
UNIT TWO
GRAMMAR: МОДАЛЬНЫЕ ГЛАГОЛЫ С
PERFECT INFINITIVE
/ . Must, may, might с Perfect Infinitive выражают различную степень
вероятности совершения действия в прошлом.
Must
Вероятно Должно быть
The solution must have been wrong.
Вероятно, решение было неверным.
May
Возможно Может быть
They may (might) have made a mistake.
Возможно, они допустили ошибку.
Might
Возможно
(Случайная возможность) +
Perf. Inf.
You might (could) have made it better.
Вы могли бы сделать это лучше.
2. Cannot/Could not + Perfect Infinitive выражают почти полную уверенность, что действие в прошлом на самом деле не произошло.
Cannot
Could not
Не может быть, чтобы + Perf. Inf.
Не cannot/could not have made He может быть, чтобы он допустил
such a mistake. Не is a skilled такую ошибку. Он опытный
engineer.
инженер.
1
5
3. Might, Could + Perfect Infinitive могут означать, что действие, которое в
прошлом могло бы иметь место, на самом деле не про изошло, т.е.
высказывается нереальное предположение. Иногда это совет, который уже
нельзя осуществить. При переводе используется сослагательное наклонение.
Might
Could
Мог бы
Можно было бы + Perf. Inf.
4. Should/Ought to + Perfect Infinitive обозначают действие, которое должно
было состояться, но не состоялось. Иногда они обозначают упрек, сожаление.
Переводятся сослагательным наклонением.
Should Ought to
Следовало бы Надо бы +
Perf. Inf.
Вам следовало бы пол ьзоваться
You should have used that
тем новым прибором.
new device.
Не ought to have completed
the experiment.
Ему надо было бы завершить этот
эксперимент.
5. Need not + Perfect Infinitive выражает отсутствие необходимости
совершения действия в прошлом,
Need not
Не было необходимости + Perf. Inf.
The technique needn't
have been changed.
He было необходимости изменять
технологию.
• Sentences to be translated.
1. Similar results may have been obtained by other res earchers.
2. You should have carefully considered his suggestion.
3. You can't have read about these results elsewhere.
4. They must have taken special measures to reduce the weight of the
mechanical part.
5. You ought to have compared these phenomena.
6. Attention must have been called to this discovery.
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
A + -ly
Adv
=
accuratc + -iy accurately
=
•
Form adverbs from the following adjectives and translate them into Russian.
pure, comparative, rapid, equal, ordinary, certain, accidental, radioactiv e,
previous, rare, heavy, prcsunible, reasonable, separate, haughty, profitable, peevish,
cold, sufficient, effective
READING (2A)
•
First read the phrases and sentences given in italics, to get the main idea of the passage
as a whole and of each paragraph separately. Then, read each paragraph carefully to
find specific examples, reasons or details about the main ideas.
THE SCIENTISTS' RESPONSIBILITY
I think it may be reasonably maintained that neither the United States nor any
other nation can, by itself, solve the important problems that plague the world now.
The problems that count today — the steady population increase, the diminishing of
our resources, the multiplication of our wastes, the damage to the environment, the
decay of the cities, the decli ning quality of life — are all interdependent and are all
global in nature.
No nation, be it as wealthy as the United States, as large as the Soviet Union, or
as populous as China, can correct these problems without reference to the rest of the
world. Though the United States, for instance, brought its population to a firm
plateau |'phxtoii|, cleaned its soil, purified its water, filtered its air, swept up its
waste, and cycled its resources, all would avail it nothing as long as the rest of the
world did none of these things.
These problems, left unsolved, will weigh us down under a steady acceleration of
increasing misery with each passing year; yet to solve them requires us to think above
the level of nationalism. No amount of local pride anywhere in the world; no amount
of patriotic ardor on a lcss-than-all-mankind scale; no amount of flag waving; no
prejudice in favour of some specific regional culture and tradition; no conviction of
9
personal or ethnic superiority can prevail against the cold equations. The nations of
the world must co-operate to seek the possibility of mutual life, or remain separately
hostile to face the certainty of mutual death.
Nor can the co-operation be the peevish agreement of haughty equals: each quick
to resent slurs, eager to snuff out injustice to itself, and ready to profit at the
expense of others. So little time is left and so high have become the stakes, that there
no longer remains any profitable way of haggling over details, manoeuvring for
position, or threatening at eve ry moment to pick up our local marbles and go home.
The international co-operation must take the form of a world government
sufficiently effective to make and enforce the necessary decisions, and against which
the individual nations would have neitherthe r ight northc powertotake up arms.
Tyranny? Yes, of course. Just about the tyranny of Washington ovcrAlbany,
Albany over New York City, and New York City over me. Though we are each of us
personally harried by the financial demands and plagued by the endless orders of the
officialdom of three different levels of government, we accept it all, more or less
stoically, under the firm conviction that life would be worse otherwise. To accept a
fourth level would be a cheap price to pay for keeping our planet viable .
But who on Earth best realizes the serious nature of the problems that beset us?
As a class, the scientists, I should think. They can weigh, most accurately and most
judiciously, the drain on the world's resources, the effect of global pollution, the
dangers to a fragmenting ecology.
And who on Earth might most realistically bear a considerable share of
responsibility for the problems that beset us? As a class, the scientists, I should
think. Since they gladly accept the credit for lowering the death rate and for
industrializing the world, they might with some grace accept a good share of
responsibility for the less than desirable side effects that have accompanied those
victories.
And who on Earth might be expected to lead the way in finding solutions to the
problems that beset us? As a class, the scientists, I should think. On whom else can
we depend for the elaboration of humane systems for limiting population, effective
ways of preventing or reversing pollution, elegant methods of cycling resources? All
this will clearly depend on steadily increasing scientific knowledge and on steadily
increasing the wisdom with which this knowledge is applied.
And who on Earth is most likely to rise above the limitations of national and
ethnic prejudice and speak in th e name of mankind as a whole? As a class, the
scientists, I should think. The nations of the world are divided in culture: in
language, in religion, in tastes, in philosophy, in heritage — but wherever science
exists at all, it is the same science; and sci entists from anywhere and everywhere
speak the same language, professionally, and accept the same mode of thought.
Is it not then as a class, to the scientists that we must turn to find leaders in the
fight for world government?
From "Today and tomorrow, and ..."
by Isaac Asimov
•
Look through the passage and find English equivalents for the following Russian
phrases.
можно с полным основанием утверждать; проблемы, беспокоящие мир;
упадок городов; снижение уровня жизни; все это ничего не стоило бы;
возрастающая нищета; патриотический пыл; никакие предрассуд ки в угоду...;
этническое превосходство; неотвратимость обоюдно й гибели (смерти);
высокомерные (надменные) равные стороны; каждая стре -мится опорочить;
нажиться за счет; торговаться по мелочам; забрать свои «игрушки» и...;
чиновничество; твердое убеждение; наиболее здра вомыслящие; принять на себя
значительную долю ответственности за...; побочные эффекты (влияние)
•
Examine each paragraph of the text above carefully and find answers to the following
questions.
1. What problems plague the world today?
2. Why can no nation solve these problems separately?
3. What should the nations do to think above the level of nationalism?
4. Why does the author accept the "tyranny" of a "world government"?
5. Why should the scientists be responsible (according to the author) for the
problems that beset us?
6. Why could only scientists (according to th e author) find the solutions to these
problems?
7. Why are scientists most likely (according to the author) to rise above the
limitations of national prejudice?
8. Why are the nations of the world divided in culture?
9. Why are the scientists, according to the auth or, not divided in culture?
•
Look through the passage and fill in the blanks with the proper information. In some
cases grammatical changes are necessary.
1. According to Isaac Asimov, the problems that plague the world are the
following: 1) the world population ...; 2) the world resources are ...; 3) the
wastes are ...; 4) environment is ... ; 5) the cities are ... ; 6) the quality of life
is ... .
2. The author thinks that the US is..., the USSR w a s a n d China is....
10
3. The author's idea about the US is that the c ountry's population is its soil is
its water is its air is its wastes are ... .
4. The author thinks that the world scientists should be responsible for ...
because they ....
PUBLIC OPINION POLL
Which, if any, of the things on the list do you think could be areas where scientific
discoveries could have very dangerous effects (vd), dangerous effects (rf), not dangerous
effects (я).
Branch of science/technology
Nuclear energy
Men
Women
Total
Biotechnology and genetic engineering
National defence and armaments
Space exploration
Agriculture and plant science
Medical research
Control and reduction of polluti on
Robotics
New forms of energy
Information technology and computers
Astrology
•
Discuss the results of the public opinion poll in class. Give reasons for your opinion.
CLASSWORK
READING (2B)
•
Read the passage and find arguments to prove that people can look up at the stars and
down at the atoms with an equal degree of infer- and superiority.
OUR PLACE IN THE UNIVERSE
In our everyday life wc encounter objects of widely differing sizes. Some of
them are as large as a barn and others are as small as a pinhead. When we go beyond
those limits, either in the direction of much larger objects or in the direction of much
smaller ones, it becomes increasingly difficult to grasp their actual sizes. We know
that mountains are very large, but at a distance they look quite small. While at a
short range we can see but a few rocks and cliffs. We know that bacteria are very
small, but to sec them we have to use a microscope, through which they look quite
big.
Objects that are much larger than mountai ns, such as our earth itself, the moon,
the sun, the stars, and stellar systems, constitute what is known as the macrocosm
(i.e., "large world" in Greek). Very small objects, such as bacteria, atoms, and
electrons belong to the microcosm (i.e., "small worl d" in Greek).
Ifwc use the standard scientific unit, a centimeter (0.3937 inch), for measuring sizes,
objects belonging to the macrocosm will be described by very large numbers, and
those forming the microcosm by very small ones. Thus, the diameter of the sun is
139,000,000,000 cm, while the diameter of a hydrogen atom is only 0.0000000106
cm. Scientists customarily express such numbers in terms of positive or negative
powers of ten, and write 1.39 x 10" cm for the diameter of the sun and 1.06 x 10 s cm
for the diameter of a hydrogen atom. Sometimes special very large or very small
units are used. Thus, in the macrocosm we use the so -called astronomical unit
(symbol: A.U.), which is defined as the mean distance of the earth from the sun and
is equal to 1.4964 x 10' 3 cm, or a still larger unit known as a light -year (symbol: l.y.)
which is defined as the distance travelled by light in the course of one year and is
equal to 9.463 x 10" cm. In the microcosm we often use microns (symbol: m ),
defined as l()~ 4 cm, and Angstroms (symbdl: A), defined as 10 8 cm.
It is interesting to notice that the size of the human head is just about halfway
between the size of an atom and the size of the sun, or halfway between the size of
an atomic nucleus and the diameter of the pl anetary system (on the logarithmic scale
in both cases, of course).
Similar vast variations will be found in the time intervals encountered in the
study of the microcosm and the macrocosm. I n human history we ordinarily speak
about centuries; in geology t he eras arc usually measured in hundreds of millions of
years, while the age of the Universe itself is believed to be about 10-20 billion years.
The revolution period of an electron in the hydrogen atom, on the other hand , is 10 15
sec, and the oscillations of particles constituting atomic nuclei have a period of only
10 22 sec. Notice that the wink of an eye is just halfway between the age of our
stellar system and the rotation period of an electron in an atom. Thus, it seems that
we are located pretty well in the middle between the macro - and microcosm and can
look up at the stars and down at the atoms with an equal degree of infer - and
superiority.
•
Rc-rcad the passage and find English equivalents for the following Russian phrases.
повседневная жизнь; размеры колеблются от... до...; некоторые ве личиной с
сарай; постичь их действительные размеры; так называемая астрономическая
единица; одно деление масштабной линейки; другие размером с булавочную
11
головку; десятичный логарифмический масштаб; с
неполноценности и превосходства; на малом расстоянии
•
равной
степенью
Look through the passage again and supply answers to the following questions.
1. What problem is the passage concerned with?
2. What is the main idea of the text?
3. Docs the title of the passage adequately express the main idea?
4. Why do you think so?
5.
In what paragraph is the main idea expressed?
6.
What two worlds are all the objects of the Universe classified into?
7.
What does the word "cosm" mean in Greek?
8.
What is the main standard unit for measuring the size of an object?
9.
Why does the author prefer centimeter as a measuring unit in this case?
10. What is the diameter of the sun/hydrogen atom?
11. How do scientists express very large or very small numbers?
12. What special units are used for express ing sizes and distances in macro-and
microcosm?
13. What is the main standard unit for measuring time intervals?
14. Can we measure human history in seconds?
15. What time periods do scientists usually use when speaking of geology/
history of the Universe/oscillations of particles?
16. Why does the author say that "we are located pretty well in the middle
between the macro- and microcosm"? What "middle" does he mean?
17. Why can we look up at the stars and down at the atoms with an equal degree
of infer- and superiority?
18. What does the author mean by infer - and superiority?
• Be prepared to give your opinion on these problems.
1. Macrocosm objects and their special units of measurements.
2. Microcosm objects and theirspecial units of measurements.
3. Time intervals of micro- and macrocosm.
4. The human race in the Universe.
• Match the synonyms from both columns.
II
ordinarily, in terms of, similar,
alike, from the opposite
to encounter, on the other hand, to
point of view, usually, to
constitute, duration, to grasp, division
understand, regarding, to make up,
separation, to meet, continuance
Complete the box where possible.
to direct
direction
oscillation
directional
to divide
variation
to compare
constitution
to describe
rotational
Now complete these sentences using the words from the box.
1. Objects that are much larger than mountains _________ what is known as the
macrocosm.
2. Decimal logarithmic scale is the scale in which each factor of ten is
represented by one _______ of the yardstick.
3. Similar vast ______ will be found in the time intervals.
4. An ______ may be defined as a series of rapid changes in the state of
something during which it moves from its original state to a new state and
back again.
5. A ____ of various durations encountered in the macrocosm, microc osm
and in our everyday life is given in Fig. 1
HOMEWORK
(to be done in writing)
12
1. Translate into Russian.
1. The government should have thought about the problems that plague the
world.
2. The damage to the environment must have been caused by dirty technol ogies.
3. Many of the countries could have cleaned their soil.
4. They could have found some profitable way of doing it.
5. They shouldn't have been threatened with wars.
13
6. The international cooperation might have taken the form of an effective world
government.
7. In this case individual nations couldn't have had the right to take up arms.
8. They couldn't have realized the serious nature of the problem.
2. Translate into English. Use modal verbs.
1. Правительству следовало бы разработать более гуманную систе му
образования.
2.
Научные знания могли бы оказать помощь в решении многих вопросов.
3. Ученые должны были бы разработатьтехнологии по очистке вод.
4. Они могли бы получить кредит для выполнения этой работы.
5. Не может быть, чтобы ученые рассматривали эти проблемы серь езно.
UNIT THREE
GRAMMAR: THE COMPLEX SUBJECT
WITH THE INFINITIVE
Complex Subject
Noun or Pronoun Predicate
Infinitive
a) Passive
This value
is said
It
is supposed
to change
(to have changed)
is expected is
believed, etc.
b) Active
seems
appears
turns out
proves
happens
c) is likely is unlikely is
sure is certain
Перевод: Predicate — неопределенно-личное предложение
Subject + Infinitive — придаточное предложение с союзом что
a) Известно, полагают,...
b) По-видимому, оказывается,...
c) Вероятно, маловероятно, безусловно,..
что эта величина меняется
(изменилась).
25
• Sentences to be translated.
1. Pressure is known to act equally in all directions.
2. At very low temperatures some metals seem to be insulators.
3. This effect is supposed to have occured when there was a spark due to
electrical discharge.
4. The cloud chamber equipment appeared to be too bulky and heavy to be sent
up in baloons.
5. The total energy liberation in the transformation of one atomic nucleus into
another is expected to be the same for all nuclei of a given kind.
6. The chance of a neutrino hitting a proton and prod ucing the above-mentioned
reaction is likely to be only 1 out of 10 м .
7. The light thus produced is said to be a spontaneous emission.
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
V+-ment = N develop + -ment =
development
•
Form nouns from the following verbs and translate them into Russian.
move, establish, agree, adjust, improve, excite, appoint, develop
V +-ive = A act + -
ive = active
•
Think of the verbs corresponding to the following adjectives and translate them into
Russian.
creative, refractive, indicative, attractive, exp losive, representative, expressive,
offensive, protective
READING (ЗА)
•
The article below is concerned with the problem much too dangerous and difficult to
solve. If you were responsible for the problem, what steps would you take?
1. What measures would you take on governmental level?
2. What acts would you take on the level of the Academy of Sciences?
3. What first steps would you take if you were the head of the scientific team
dealing with the problem?
• Read the passage, think a little and answer the questions above.
PRESSING PROBLEMS
Atmospheric pollution raises problems of several types. First, there are local
problems due to the production of smoke and offensive gases by factories. Secondly,
there are regional problems created by industrial agglomerations which may spread
the same harmful effects over whole areas. Thirdly, there are some types of pollution,
such as those arising from nuclear explosives, which cover a considerable portion of
the globe. And lastly, there appeared one more type of pollution which is threatening
the globe as a whole.
Recent scientific research suggests that the protective layer of ozone around our
planet is under severe attack. Alarm bells were sounded in 1982 when researchers in
the Antarctic first identified a yawning (зияющий) hole over the Antarctic where the
ozone layer is thinnest.
This was the first sign of a hole. Five years later it was reported that the hole had
grown to an area the size of the United States.
The major cause of this weakening of the ozone layer i s believed to be the
increasing amount of harmful chemicals that arc being released into the atmo sphere
by humankind.
Environmentalists and scientists point out that a further one per cent drop in the
overall ozone layer can cause an increase of skin canc er.
The fundamental importance of the ozone layer is that it acts as a filter
intercepting most of the sun's radiation including potentially harmful Ultra Violet B rays which can cause melanoma — skin cancer.
The appearance of the Antarctic hole has intens ified the search for a cause.
Strong evidence now suggests that it is the growing industrial use of chlorine
compounds called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which is responsible.
CFC is a propellent (движущая сила) gas commonly used in aerosol sprays, air
cooling systems in fridges (холодильник) and air-conditioning. Once released CFC
can hang around in the atmosphere for 100 years. Some eventually reaches the upper
atmosphere to be broken down by the sunlight. In the process chlorine is released
which combines with oxygen atoms thus reducing the amount available for ozone
production.
According to measurements recorded by the US Environmental Protection Agency
one chlorine atom has enough kinetic energy to destroy 100,000 molecules of ozone.
US space agency NASA has predicted that a rise of 2.5 percent in CFC emissions
would cause an extra one million cancers over the lifetime of the present US
population.
Researchers suggest that the level of CFCs in the atmosphere is actually
increasing by 5 percent each year. Since 1969 the ozone level has fallen by 3 per cent
16
over the densely populated cities of the US, Canada and Europe and by 4 percent over
Australia and New Zealand.
In its "worst prediction scenario" NASA claims that an ever -thinning ozone layer
could eventually allow a more harmful form of radiation, known as Ultra
Violet С, to hit the earth. Laboratory experiments have shown that Ultra Violet С can
penetrate cells in the body and irreparably damage the nucleic acids and proteins
which are the building blocks of life.
There is the need for an international agreement that wo uld completely stop CFC
production.
•
Answer the following questions.
1. How many types of problems arise in the atmospheric pollution control?
2. Are all of the effects equally dangerous and harmful?
3. Which one is the most serious and why?
4. How do environmentalists explain the ozone layer thinning?
5. Why is the ozone layer so important for all living on the earth?
6. What are the most dramatic predictions of NASA concerning the problem?
7. What steps should be taken to avoid the situation?
•
Topics for discussion.
1. Scientists' responsibility for atmospheric pollution.
2. People should avoid overusing:
a) all kinds of sprays;
b) air-conditioning wherever possible;
c) fridges whenever possible.
CLASSWORK
READING (3B)
•
Read the passage carefully and discuss the following idea: "How can scientists so
confidently predict what will occur in the next 100 years when we can't even predict the
weather for tomorrow?"
IS THE EARTH GETTING HOTTER?
It sounded like nature's own apocalypse (апокалипсис). *"The earth's
temperature would rise, melting the icecaps, raising the seas, flooding the land.
Arisona would turn into a rain forest and the agricultural Midwest would become a
desert." At least, that was how TV weathermen interpreted a repo rt by the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) on the "greenhouse effect" that would begin
altering the earth'sclimateby the 1990s. *The EPAprcdicted "catastrophic
consequences" if contingency (непредвиденное обстоятельство) plans weren't made
with "a sense of urgency".
Fortunately, the news improved later when the National Academy of Scienc es
said that although the greenhouse effect was very real, "caution (осторожность) not
panic" was in order.
In fact, the science ofthe phenomenon is more interesting than frightening. *Thc
greenhouse effect results when CO, and certain othergascs in the atmo sphere allow
the sun's ultraviolet rays to penetrate and warm the earth but then absorb the infrared
energy the earth radiates back into space — much as glass in a greenhouse effect
does — forming a kind of "thermal blanket" around the planet. By burning huge
amounts of fossil fuels, which release C0 2 into the atmosphere, man has raised the
C0 2 level from 280 to 340 parts per million since 1860. And continued use of coal
and other fossil fuels is expected to double the concentration of CO, by the year 2050,
elevating the earth's tempera ture by 3 to 9 degrees Fahrenheit. The greenhouse effect
will mean much more than hotter summers and milder winters. It may alter r ainfall,
affect crop yields (урожай) and eventually— as glaciers begin to melt — raise the
level ofthe sea.
Both reports predict that the temperature change will be greater in the polar
regions than near the equator. In general, they speculate that snowfall will begin
later, the growing season will lengthen and higher latitudes will get less rain. *The
EPA says that the sea level will probably rise at least two feet before the year 2100,
which could flood "many of the major ports of the world, disrupt transportation
networks, alter ecosystems and cause major shifts in land devel opment patterns".
Although use of fossil fuels is the main cause ofthe CO, increase, the gov ernment
agencies don't advocate any sweeping changes in energy policies. Even a total ban on
the burning of fossil fuels in the United States wouldn't have much impact, because
the United States accounts for only 25 percent of the world's total man -made C0 2
emissions. * A worldwide coal ban instituted in 2000 would delay the warming by
about 15 years but is considered economically and politically unfeasible.
If we can't prevent the greenhouse effect, we can prepare forit. Suggestions
include breeding (выводить) plants that need less water, improving irrigation
systems, and many others.
However not all experts are convinced that the heat is coming. Some think that
the use of primary energy sources such as coal could decline 60 percent by 2050 and,
perhaps, "the opposite of the EPA scenario is true. If the rate of fossil -fuel use is
going down, the amount of C0 2 we add to the air is getting less every year".
•
Try to guess the meaning of the words given in italics in the text.
•
Translate the sentences marked with an asterisk.
17
•
Answer the following questions.
I. Is there a 100 per cent agreement on our planet's future climatic conditions?
2. If the EPA's prediction comes true, what should the people living beside the
sea do?
3. If the EPA's prediction comes true, wha t will the climatic conditions be in
different regions of Russia?
HOMEWORK
{to be done in writing)
1. Translate into Russian.
1. People seem to realize the potential dangers of some scientific discoveries.
2. The majority of the people questioned in a public opinion poll do not doubt
science to do more good than harm.
3. However, 70 per cent of those questioned accept that scientific discoveries
can have dangerous effects.
4. Nuclear energy is considered to be a high -risk area by 70 per cent of the
respondents (отвечающий), with biotechnology and genetic engineering the
second most mentioned.
5. There seems to be really a serious gap (пробел) in communication between
the public and scientists about the goings -on in modern biology.
6. In view of this concern, it is perh aps not surprising that most (84 per cent) of
those questioned felt that scientists and technologists should pay more
attention to the social implications of their work, with 76 per cent of
respondents saying that politicians should know more about science .
2. Translate into English. Use the Complex Subject with the Infinitive.
Model: Конечно, все мы слишком хорошо знаем, что такое загрязне ние
окружающей среды.
АН of us are certain to know very well what environmental pollution is.
1. Он, говорят, работает в учреждении, связанном с охраной окру жающей
среды.
2. Ожидают, что он приедет в учреждение к 9 часам.
3. Вероятно, он ответит на ваши вопросы.
4. Мы, конечно, понимаем потенциальную угрозу вашему региону.
5. Полагаем, что ваша проблема будет решена.
Part II.
THE UNIVERSE PUZZLE
UNIT FOUR
GRAMMAR: FUNCTIONS OF THE INFINITIVE
Инфинитив в функции определения стоит после определяемого существительного и выражае i'действие еще не реализованное, возможное или
необходимое, которое подлежит осуществлению в будущем. На рус ский язык
обычно переводится придаточным предложением, сказуе мое которого имеет
значение долженствования, будущего времени или возможности
The experiments to be made will help us a lot.
Эксперименты, которые необходимо провести, очень помогут нам.
Примечание: Инфинитив в функции определения, стоящий после слон:
the first, the last, the next (the first to invent..., the last to use...), может не иметь
модального оттенка и переводится глаголом в личной форме и том времени,
и котором стоит сказуемое английского предложения.
Не was the first to come. — Он пришел первым.
Но
It was the first problem to be solved.
Это была первая проблема, которую необходимо было решить.
• Translate into Russian.
1. The information to be given in the next journal is of interest.
2. The subject to be dealt with is rather unexpected.
3. The data to be presented in the paper is quite reliable.
4. The investigation to be carried on is of great importance.
5. The scientific group to do the job is well prepared.
6. The results to be obtained can explain much in particle physics.
18
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
V+ -ance/-ence = N emerge
+ -ence = emergence
• Think of verbs corresponding to the following nouns and translate them into
Russian.
existence, coalescence,
correspondence
conductance,
reference,
difference,
resistance,
READING (4A)
•
First survey the block-scheme of the problem discussed in the passage 4A below.
The Universe
i
y
Problems
matter/energy Hypotheses **.
I
Emergence of
the Universe
I
I
Y
±L
Big Bang
i
Age characteristics
I
Structure of cosmic
systems
Distribution of
matter
Superclustcrs
!
Chemical
composition
Y
clusters i
galaxies
Life in the
Universe
Voids
i
stellar systems
i
dark clouds of
dust and gas,
I
v
I
stars/planets/
invisible matter
time
empty space
satellites
space
i
Investigation
tools
— Telescopes
i
X-ray astronomy
i
Spectroscopy
law)
(red-shift
i
Radioastronomy
I
Y
Optical astronomy
I
Sensitive detectors
I
etc.
19
SUPERCLUSTERS AND VOIDS IN THE
DISTRIBUTION OF GALAXIES
Rcd-shifl surveys of selected regions ofthe sky have established the existence of at least
three enormous superclusters of galaxies. The surveys also reveal that huge volumes of
space are quite empty.
Astronomers and cosmologists are much preoccupied these days with explaining the
emergence and distribution of aggregates of matter in the universe. I low soon after the big
bang, the presumed explosion of the primordial atom some 10 to 20 billion years ago, did
matter begin to coalesce into the stars and galaxies we see today? Assuming that matter was
more or less evenly dispersed before coalescence began, is the universe on the grand scale
uniformly populated today by stellar aggregates of one kind o r another? Recent observations
by several groups of astronomers arc helping to answer these questions. Large -scale surveys
have verified the existence of superclusters of galaxies: organized structures composed of
multiple clusters of galaxies. Each cluste r, in turn, may consist of hundreds or thousands of
individual galaxies. Although the existence of superclusters has long been conjectured, their
confirmation has been accompanied by at least one major surprise: equally large regions of
space contain no galaxies at all.
Superclusters arc so vast that individual membergalaxies moving at random velocities
cannot have crossed more than a fraction of a supercluster's diameter in the billions of years
since the galaxies came into being. Evidently, superclusters offer an insight into
evolutionary history that is simply not obtainable with smaller systems. At scales smaller
than those of superclusters the original distribution of matter is smeared out by evolutionary
"mixing". Astronomers hope that an understanding ofthe largest structures in the universe
will clarify the processes that give rise to structures of all dimensions, ranging downward
from galaxies to stars and planets.
It is impossible to determine who first conceived the idea that clusters of galaxies m ight
be members of still larger aggregates, namely superclusters. As one reads old technical
papers on extragalactic astronomy one is struck by the similarities between the speculations
of 50 years ago and the better-understood concepts of today. What our immediate
predecessors lacked were the observational tools that have finally provided the evidence to
substantiate some of the early speculations. Although observations in the X -ray, ultraviolet,
infrared and radio regions ofthe electromagnetic spectrum ha ve opened exciting new
windows on the universe, it is fair to say that the most important information for cosmology
has been collected by telescopes that gather visible and near -visible light.
by Stephen A. Gregory and Laird
A. Thompson
'1 1 ..
Ky|lHlllh,UH
20
И.
33
» Find English equivalents for the following Russian phrases.
исконное (первоначальное) ядро; в грандиозном масштабе; широ комасштабные обзорные наблюдения; сверхскоплении (сверхсистемы) честно
говоря;...
позволяют
понять
историю
эволюции;
про цессы,
которые
порождают...; "большой взрыв".
• Get ready to answer these questions.
1.
What problem docs the text deal with?
2.
What is "big bang"?
3.
When did it take place?
4.
What hypotheses do you know concerning the origin ofthe Universe?
5.
Is there a 100% agreement between the scientists on the problem?
6.
What do surveys ofthe stellar system structure show?
7.
Why has the existence of super -clusters long been conjectured?
8.
What investigation tools did scientists use in the past?
9.
What investigation tools gave the mos t important information for cosmology?
10. What hypotheses concerning the voids in the Universe do you know?
• Match each word in column I with its 1
emergence, to presume, to verify, to
conjecture, at random, to lack, to
clarify, similarity, evidently, to
conceive the idea
II
to make clear, to form in the mind, to
confirm, to suppose, to guess, not to
have, obviously, likeness, appearance,
without reason or aim
synonym in column II.
• Choose a proper word and complete the sentences.
1. How soon after the Big Bang did matter begin to (cluster/coalesce/ coincide)
into the stars and galaxies?
2. Large-scale surveys have (viewed/violated/verified) the existence of
superclusters of galaxies.
3. The existence of superclusters has long been (converted/conjectured/
connected).
4. The original distribution of matter is (singled out/smeared out) by evolutionary
"mixing".
5. An understanding of the largest structures in the universe will (clarify/
clean/coincide) the processes that give rise to structures of all dimensions.
6. Astronomers and cosmologists are much preoccupied these days with
explaining the (convergence/emergence/exislence) and distribution of
aggregates of matter in the Universe.
CLASSWORK
READING (4B)
» Skim the passage rapidly (3 min.) and answer the questions.
1. What hypotheses concerning the origin of the Universe were put forward?
2. Which of the hypotheses is supported by observations?
3. What assumption is made about the voids of the Universe?
It has become clear from the red -shift surveys that the present-day distribution of
galaxies is highly inhomogencous out to a distance of several hundred million light years. * // seems probable that the inhomogeneity extends out to billions of light years and characterizes the entire universe. We must assume, however, that the
universe may contain much matter that is nonluminous. The possible existence and
volume of such matter is currently the subject of wide speculation.
There are two competing hypotheses. The more conventional model assumes that
individual galaxies arose out of a nearly homogeneous primordial soup. *The main
trouble with this model is explaining how the universe proceeded from its smooth
state to the state in which matter was gathered into galaxies. The model assumes that
once galaxies formed, small irregulari ties in their distribution would slowly be
amplified by the operation of long-range gravitational forces. The end result of such
amplification would be the superclusters seen today.
Л competing theoretical explanation was suggested in 1972 by two Russian
astronomers, Yakov Zcl'dovich and Rashid Sunyaev. In their model the gas of the
early universe did not condense into stars and galaxies immediately. Instead, slight
but very-large-scale irregularities in the general distribution of the gas grew larger in
response to gravitational attraction and became increasingly irregular. Eventually, the
gas became dense enough to collect into vast sheets of material, which then
fragmented into galaxies. *Accordingtothis hypothesis, clusters and superclusters
form first as concentrations of gas, and only then do galaxies appear.
Do either ofthese models find support in the observations wc have made of
superclusters? *Sincc the Zel'dovich -Sunyacv model requires all galaxies to have
formed in clusters or superclusters, field galaxies, or random stragglers, should be
rare. If the conventional model is correct and galaxies can arise almost anywhere at
random, only later to be shepherded by gravity into groups or clusters, stragglers
should be rather common. Actually, the only p opulations of isolated galaxies we have
discovered in our red-shift surveys are galaxies scattered within the boundaries of
superclusters. Moreover, the voids are genuinely empty. In sum, the observed
distribution of galaxies within superclusters and the e xistence of huge voids between
superclusters are entirely consistent with the Zel'dovich -Sunyaev model.
•
Explain the way you understand the italicized words and phrases in the passage.
•
Give an English-Russian translation of the sentences marked with an asterisk.
•
Give a free translation of the text below.
ЗВЕЗДА В 2.500 СОЛНЦ
Астрономы Висконсинского университета (США), анализируя дан ные,
полученные с помощью искусственного спутника Земли, подтвер дили, что в
газовой туманности Тарантул (Tarantula Nebula) в Большом Магеллановом
облаке (Large Magellanic Cloud) существует сверхмассивная звезда. Ученые,
наблюдавшие ее ранее с использованием оп тических телескопов, высказывали
предположение, что масса этого небесного тела больше массы Солнца в 200 —
1.000 раз, однако спутниковые наблюдения вносят поправку — в 2.500 раз!
Звезда расположена в центре самого яркого облака ионизированно го
водорода — газовой туманности Тарантул, светимость которой в сто миллионов
раз выше светимости Солнца.
HOMEWORK
(to be done in writing)
1. Translate into Russian.
1. The most important information for cosmology must have been collected by
telescopes that gather visible and near-visible light.
2. Clusters of galaxies may have been members of still larger aggregates,
namely superclusters.
3. Matter must have been more or less evenly dispersed before coalescence
began.
22
4. They can't have encountered serious difficulties in developing this theory.
5. You should have paid more attention to the problem of explaining the
emergence and distribution of aggregates of matter in the Universe.
6. Individual member galaxies moving at random velocities cannot have crossed
more than a fraction of a supercluster's diameter in the billions of years.
7. They ought to have accomplished large-scale surveys to verify the exi stence
of superclusters of galaxies.
2. Translate into English using modal verbs.
1. Они, вероятно, столкнулись с трудностями при изучении этого явления.
2. Вам следовало бы знать, что Солнце и звезды относятся к макро миру.
3. Не может быть, чтобы он достиг таких успехов.
4. Возможно, им не хватало приборов наблюдения, чтобы подтвер дить их
предположения.
5. Вам надо было бы использовать десятичный логарифмический масштаб в
этом случае.
UNIT FIVE
GRAMMAR: PARTICIPLE
(FORMS AND FUNCTIONS)
FORMS OF PARTICIPLE
Pa ici
rt pli
Active
1 Indefinite
1 Perfect
11
Passive
obtaining
having obtained
being obtained
having been obtained
obtained
—
FUNCTIONS OF PARTICIPLE
as an Attribute
as an Adverbial Modifier of Time
Parti :iple I
c Per feet
artici
ple
ndefi
nit
Active The object obtaining this energy... Obtaining this energy the
object...
BU
Being obtained, the energy...
Passive The energy being obtained was...
—
Active
Having obtained this energy the
object...
—
Having been obtained, the
Passive
energy...
Participle II
The energy thus obtained was...
When obtained, the energy...
concerned
involved
I _____ данный, рассматриваемый,
j
о котором идет речь
The problem concerned is of great significance.
38
I i k'uions ion",11;an ; '■.'■ , n arc 'ч motion. 2.
Being heated the subsumcc began to glow.
3
Si a/ted Кы month. th. 1 calculations will be soon completed.
4
Having considcied the p r e'r>!cm : nvolved they arrived at a definite
conclusion.
:>
I ollow ing the inetuocl iuui'ved we "bund i*. to be effective.
6. Having been separated from a mixture the substance was investigated under
the microscope.
"I When heated to a high temperature in a vacuum a metal gives off tree
electrons.
8. flic results obtained agree with those oredicted by the theory.
WO R D AND P H R AS E S TU DY
V ! -able/'-We - Л to measure
^-ablc = measurable
•
\'-'or rJjc'.'th>. * from Hie following verbs using -ahle/-ible and translate
them into Kussian.
naslu disiiuuubh, suit, reduce, compare.approach, move, convert,achieve,
fission, attach
READING (5A)
•
Read the passage and answer the question:
What scientific discoveries made scientists change their attitude to the
problems concerned with the Universe origin?
THE UNIVERSE ORIGIN
The puzzle oft he birth and deaths of the Universe is one of the most exciting
problems in science comparable in importance with the puzzle of the origin of
life. According to the hot big bang theory which is widely accepted by
astronomers today, the Universe was born at some time / = 0, about 15 billion
years ago, in a state of infinitely high temperature and infinite energy density. I
he fireball expanded and cooled, with its energy being converted into particles
that gave rise to the material from which all the stars and planets were built.
Cosmologists have been able ш.sketch the broad outlines ofthe evolution of
the Universe from the fireball slate to the present day. The resulting standard
model of the Universe is only some twenty years old: in the mid 1960s, the
discovery ofthe cosmic microwave background radiation finally convinced
astronomers and physicists that there really was a big bang. It was in 1965 that
Arno Pcnziasand Robert Wilson, at the Bell Research Laboratories, discovered
this weak radio noise with a temperature of about 3K that seems to fill the entire
Universe. It was soon explained as a relict ofthe fireball which the Universe was
born out of. But although the outlines of the standard model seemed satisfactory,
there were some remaining problems which bothered many cosmologists during
the 1970s. The most important of these problems were:
The singularity problem. The state of infinite density and zero volume at time
t = 0 is called a singularity. One may wonder what was there before the
singularity? — or putting it another way, where did the singularity come from?
What is the origin ofthe Universe? The standard model of cosmology in the 1960s
and 1970s made no attempt to answer this question, but started out from a state of
very high energy density a fraction of a second after the moment of creation.
The flatness problem. According to the general theory of relativity, developed
by Albert Einstein, the geometry of our Universe may be different from the
Euclidean geometry of flat space. The Universe may be open in which case
parallel lines diverge from one another, or it may be closed in the way that the
surface of a sphere is closed, so that parallel lines cross one another like the
meridian lines on a globe ofthe Earth. All the observational evidence is that our
Universe is very close to being flat. A question arises -- why is our Universe so
flat?
The homogeneity problem and the problem of galaxies. Astronomical
observations also show that our Universe is homogeneous on very large scales —
matter is distributed evenly through the Universe. The Universe is also isotropic;
on the large scale, it looks the same in all directions. The size ofthe observable
Universe is about 10** cm. On this scale, the deviations of the density of matter
from a perfectly smooth distribution amount to no more than one part in 10,000.
However, on smaller scales, the Universe is not homogeneous. It contains
galaxies made up of stars, clusters of galaxies, and supcrgalaxies. What small
disturbances in the early history of the Universe could have produced these minor
inhomogeneities in an otherwise very smooth Universe У
The problem of the dimensionality of spacetime. There is a great deal of
interest among mathematicians today in the possibility that space may have more
than three dimensions. *ln the most interesting of these models, space has ten
dimensions (the 1 Ith is for time), all but three of which have been "compacted",
shrunk into thin tubes. But why should the compactification have stopped with
three effective space dimensions, not two, or five, or some other number?
All these problems (and some others which are not given here) seemed for a
long time more metaphysical than physical puzzles for philosophers, not
scientists to debate. *Most physicists did not take the problems seriously,
accepting that science might never find ultimate answers to suc h questions, or, at
least, not for a very longtime. If the standard model of cosmology could explain
15 billion years of cosmic evolution, there was no great concern that the theory
couid not explain what happened during the first millisecond. But in recen t years,
the attitude of physicists toward these metaphysical problems has changed
radically. This shift in attitude began when physicists studying the interactions
ofthe elementary particles began to develop theories of the way particles interact
under conditions of very high energy densities, like those in the big bang.
•
Try to guess the meaning of the words given in italics in the text.
•
Translate the sentences marked with an asterisk.
•
Think and say a few words about each of the problems posed by the author and their
importance for science.
CLASSWORK
READING (5B)
•
Before reading the passage, read its headline and say what you know about the
problem. Discuss the problem with your partners. Then read the passage and find
the facts supporting your ideas.
HOW MANY DIMENSIONS EXIST?
It is usually taken for granted that there arc three dimensions of space and a
single dimension of time. That is, any event that occurs anywhere in the universe
can be assigned a location in space using three coordinates and a loca tion in time
using one. *But physicists and mathematicians have studied hypothetical worlds
in which more or fewer dimensions exist, and so questions arise as to whether the
usual belief about our world is strictly correct, and if so, whether we can find a ny
reason for it being true. For example, we might consider the possibility that there
are really four dimensions of space, but that for some reason, all ofthe
phenomena that we usually observe have the same value for one of the space
coordinates.
It has been known for a century that if the dimensionality of space were other
than three, and if free motion were possible in all ofthe dimensions in (he same
way, then some of the known laws of physics would not obtain. Newton's inverse
square law for the force of gravity is one such. This argument gives additional
evidence that space is in fact three-dimensional, but does not explain why this is
so. *Furthermore, it does not rule out the possibility that our world has more than
the expected number of dimensions, but that most phenomena are restricted in
how they can vary in the extra dimension.
Our approach to the question is to consider how spaces and times with
different numbers of dimensions might behave. For example, one might find that
the dimensionality of space and lime can itself undergo evolution, and that the
values familiar to us are the present result of that evolution. Such an approach
woulc involve relations between the number of dimensions and other physical
quantities such as the temperature of the universe Through these relations, the
dimensionality would be detei mined by these other quantities. Since
dimensionality is usually taken to be a whole number, it might not be possible for
a dimension to disappear through evolution. *Instcad, what might happen through
evolution is that some extra dimensions could become suppressed in comparisons
with others. Our present picture of the expansion of the universe makes this idea
much more plausible than it was once. Since everything was once much closer
together than it is now, we can imagine that there arc indeed more dimensions
than we think. The expansion of the universe may have taken place
asymmetrically, so that in one of the dimensions there has been little or no
expansion, and the scale of distances i n that dimension would still be as small as
it was at the beginning of the universe.
If this idea is correct, it would mean that there really are more than the
familiar number of dimensions. *// is intriguing to think that it might be possible
to find some technological means to find and study the usually inaccessible
dimensions. Very likely ноте phenomena would be different in a universe with
more than four dimensions, even if there were no symmetry between the different
dimensions. It would be of great interest to identify such phenomena and to sec if
they can be observed.
Theoretical investigations have shown that if the general theory of relativity
is set up in a space-time of more than lour dimensions, and if the extents of the
extra dimensions are made small and connected like a cylinder, then the resulting
theory describes not only gravi ty, but also elect romagnetism and other fields that
have been introduced to describe subatomic particles. The extra dimensions in this
case arc associated not with space and time, but with the internal symmetries.
Physicists arc actively trying to unite s pace-time symmetries and internal
symmetries in this way.
If other dimensions do exist, we would still want to account for the precise
number through some more basic principles. In the type of theory just described,
the total number of dimensions would be related through an internal symmetry to
the number of quantum fields that exist. But wc should still need to understand
why precisely four dimensions have expanded while the others remained small.
The question of the dimensionality of space-time is ripe for more serious
investigation.
• Divide your English group into two parts. One half of the group reads the text to find
the arguments in favour of the three-dimensional space, the other finds all the
suppositions in favour of the more number of dimensions of space.
Facts
Suppositions
•
Try to guess the meaning of the words given in italics in the text.
•
Translate the sentences marked with an asterisk.
•
Answer the following questions:
1. What scientific facts support the idea of the three -dimensionality of space we
live in?
2. How do scientists check the truth of this idea?
3. if there were really more dimensions than three what discrepancies could
there appear in our scientific knowledge of the world?
4. If there were really four dimensions of space, what should we assum e about
the extra dimension?
5. If we assume that the expansion of the universe in the Big Bang process had
taken place asymmetrically what conclusion should we come to?
6. What did theoretical investigations concerning Einstein's general theory of
relativity applied to a four-dimensional space show?
7. What is your attitude to the problem? Do you find it worth studying? Why?
Give your reasons.
HOMEWORK
(to be done in writing)
1. Translate some sentences paying attention to following and followed.
1. The calculations following the experiment gave accurate results.
2. The lecture followed by the demonstration of experiments was a success.
3. The practical studies following the theoretical ones were of great use.
4. Following this new method they achieved good results.
5. 10 8 is a number expressed by one followed by eight zeroes.
6. Experiments of many other scientists following Rutherford's research proved
his predictions.
2. Translate the following sentences into English using the Participle.
1. Двигаясь (при движении) по кругу с один аковой скоростью, тело
непрерывно изменяет свое направление.
2. После того как прибор прошел тщательное испытание, его ввели в
эксплуатацию.
3. Луч лазера имеет почти неограниченные возможности примене ния в
промышленности.
4. Нейтрон — частица, имеющая одинаковую массу с протоном, но не
несущая электрического заряда.
5. Так как измерения проводились неточными приборами, данные были
ненадежными.
6. Испытываемое оборудование требует дальнейшего усовершен ствования.
UNIT SIX
GRAMMAR: THE ABSOLUTE PARTICIPIAL
CONSTRUCTION
1. S + Participle; S + Predicate
так как, когда, если, послетого как...
All preparations having been made, Когда все приготовления были
they started the experiment.
сделаны, они начали эксперимент.
2. S + Predicate; S + Participle
... причем, а, и
Hydrogen is the simplest substance, Водород является простейшим
atoms of all other elements having веществом, а атомы других
a more complex structure.
веществ имеют более сложную
структуру.
Примечание: Иногда незанисимый причастный оборот вводится предлог ом
with. Обороты такого типа в начале предложения переводятся придаточным
предложением с союзами: теперь, когда; при условии, когда; так как; а в
конце
предложения — самостоятельным предложением с союзами а, и, при этом.
With the experimentsltearrietf out,
Когда опыты были завершены,
они
they started new investigations.
начали новые исследования.
• Sentences to be translated.
1. An electron leaving the surface, the metal becomes positively charged.
2. A magnet is broken into two parts, each piece becoming a magnet with its
own pair of poles.
4
5
3. All the liberated electrons having reached the anode, saturation occurs.
4. The temperature ofthe conductor being raised, the motion of electrons also
increases.
5. The nucleus of an ordinary hydrogen atom consists of one prot on, with one
electron moving around it.
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
whether conj.
— ли (относится к последующему глаголу) whether ... or (not)
— независимо от того + ли (относится к глаголу) as to whether
—
относительно того + л и (относится к глаголу)
Translate the sentences into Russian. Pay attention to the conjunction whether which
corresponds to the Russian ли. Begin translation with the predicate.
Model: We are not sure whether this hypothesis is true. Мы не
уверены, верна ли эта гипотеза.
1. Questions arise as to whether our usual belief about our Universe is strictly
correct.
2. For example, one might ask whether the dimensionality of space and time can
undergo evolution.
3. Whether our Universe is finite or infinite is still not clear.
4. Until now scientists have no evidence whether there exists any invisible
matter in the Universe.
5. There is practically no evidence as to whether protons are stable or can decay.
6. Many scientists doubt whether the honeycomb hypothesis ofthe Universe
structure is valid.
RE AD I N G (6A)
There are a few hypotheses concerning the structure and origin of the Universe. One of
them will be presented in the passage below. Before reading the passage look at the
block-scheme where some of the problems in studying the Universe are presented. Think
what you know about each ofthe problems. Then read the passage. Find the ideas that
were not known to you before reading.
Origin
—> time/composition/evolution
The Universe <^ ------------- > Structure —> matter
distribution
Matter
—> principal constituents
THE UNIVERSE IS A HONEYCOMB
What docs our Universe look like? Docs it confo rm to the popularly held
concept of a black abyss with islands of galaxies dispersed through it with no
boundaries or shape? Apparently, it does not. "The Universe has a clear -cut •a
met lire," says astronomer D.Sc. Jaan Einasto, who heads the sector of th e physics
ofgalaxicsat the Institute of Astrophysics and Atmospheric Physics ol'ihe Estonian
Academy of Sciences. Imagine a honeycomb! This is not a hypothesis! Einasto
says he has the evidence to prove it. What do wc know about the Universe? First,
it came into being as a result of the " Big Bang" some 20 billion years ago. This
creation was a fantastically quick, but precisely accurate process. In moments, the
composition of all matter was formed: electrons, neutrons, protons, barions and
other particles. Through subsequent expansion, this matter, which originally was
in a state of Miperdcnsc and superhot plasma, cooled and condensed into the
galaxies, •aars and planets.... Second, the "Big Bang" process continues. We arc
still living in an expanding Universe. This is proved by the galaxies "running"
away in different directions.
What was there before the bang, before this "beginning of all beginnings"?
Science still has no answer, because all the known laws of physics only became
meaningful instants after the bang.
What is in store? Shall wc continue to infinitely expand, or will the Universe,
■ ii some point, begin to contract again? The answer lies hidden in the matter
contained in the Universe.
What does the "honeycomb" have to do with the Universe? — The structure of
the Universe discovered explains a great deal. At the beginning and in the first
stage of expansion, matter was distributed uniformly. Scientists came to
understand this in the 60s, when the relic electromagnetic radiation which
lemaincd since the blast was discovered. This radiation originally had the same
temperature as matter and, therefore, expanded along with it. But now it has
cooled off, just as matter itself, and the temperature of this radiation (weak
ladiowaves) that pierces space is the same everywhere — something about 3°
Kelvin (approximately —270°C). In other words uniformity is a major property
ol'thc Universe.
And yet, at the very beginning, there were some processes which led to the
formation of stars, galaxies, accumulations, i.e. to the condensation of matter. I
hese non-uniformities show that a pattern something like a gigantic honeycomb
with a diameter of 100-200 megaparsec (a megaparscc is 30 million light years)
has been created. The "walls" of the cells are made of accumulations of galaxies,
and where they meet, the accumulations are more numerous and the rad iation in
the X-range is more intensive. In other words, the comb is a real structure.
27
How is it that the freely moving galaxies evolved into this particular
lormation? Is this chance occurrence? —The "rigidity" of the structure indicates
that the "combs" themselves appeared initially and then galaxies. How can this
paradox be explained? — Most likely the "combs" came into being when the
galaxies were still in theirgascous state. To use an analogy, imagine two gas
bubbles expanding towards each other. The m ore they expand, the greater the
compression between them. At a certain moment they collide. This is when a
certain flat formation originates between them, which Academician Yakov
Zel'dovich called a "pancake" in his hypothesis which led to the idea of the
cellular structure ofthe Universe. The joining of a multitude of these "pancakes"
represents the walls of the gigantic "combs" in which the galaxies have
accumulated.
Ifthere are "combs", one would assume there should be "honey"? Could it be
that all the matter of the Universe went into the "walls" and the cells themselves
arc empty? — There is no visible matter there. But it is very difficult to conceive
of a physical process which would absolutely cleanse these tremendous cavities
of everything. So, perhaps, we just don't sec this substance. We have to assume
the existence of some invisible mass whose attraction influences the movement of
galaxies, thus maintaining the structure ofthe "combs". This mass should be many
times greater than the visible matter in the areas of accumulation, i.e. in the
"walls". The density of the "invisible" substance should also be far higher.
Do scientists mean the neutrinos? — Yes, they do. Until recently it has been
believed that the neutrino has no rest mass and moves with the speed of light,
without interacting with anything in its path. But the sensational findings of a
group of investigators led by V. Lyubimov (the Institute of Experimental and
Theoretical Physics) show that the rest mass ofthe neutrino is larger than zer o.
This means that the neutrino, which literally floods the Universe is, regardless of
its negligible mass, the principal matter of the Universe and hence the principal
part of its entire mass. The conventional matter in the Universe comprises but
only three percent. It is most likely that the "combs" themselves and the entire
cellular structure ofthe Universe is the result of their force of gravity.
The future ofthe Universe is in its structure. We have to know whether it is
finite. Within a "finite" Unive rse, the galaxies, after thousands of millions of
years have passed, will inevitably begin a reverse process, and expansion will
give way to contraction. Our Universe will again become a "dot" and everything
will be repeated. And so on for ever and ever ...
• Find English equivalents for the following Russian phrases.
общепринятое представление; масса покоя; буквально наводняет;
сверхплотная плазма; распределялась однородно; гигантские соты; ос новное
свойство; со времени взрыва; в мгновение ока; первая стадия расширения; на
смену расширению придстежатие; навсегда; во м ного раз больше; появилась
первоначально; невзирая на пренебрежимо малую массу; неизбежно начнет
обратный процесс; всего ли:.л> 3%; общепринятая концепция; черпая бездна
•
Mutch each word in Л with its synonym in B.
Л. relic, evidence, moment, to reverse, to conform, multitude, to occur, to
come into being
H. instant, to correspond, something surviving from the past, a great
number, to turn in an opposite direction, to originate, proof, to happen
•
Match each word in Л with its antonym in B.
Л. expansion, meaningful, conventional, relic, rigidity, to contract, to disagree
B. to expand, uncommon, modern, flexibility, meaningless, contraction, to
conform
•
Complete the sentences with information from the text or any other sources.
I. The passage deals with... .
2.
According to Jaan Einasto's hypothesis the Universe has a...structure.
3.
The Universe came into being ... ago as a result of... .
4.
The matter ofthe early Universe was in a state of... .
5.
Scientists speak about the composition of matter in terms of... .
6.
Some scientists assume that at the moment of the blast matter was
distributed ... .
7.
They find support to this idea in the discovery of... .
8.
Our Universe continues to ... and the galaxies ....
9.
The visible matter of the Universe accounts only for ....
10. Scientists assume ... to account for the rest ofthe mass.
•
Think and find arguments lo prove that:
a) one of the major properties of the Universe is its uniformity on a large scale;
b) despite their negligible size, neutrinos can account for the most of the Universe
mass;
c) surveys show that the Universe has a clear-cut structure.
•
What would you say of our current knowledge of
1. the structure of the Universe?
28
2. the distribution of matter?
3. the history of the Universe evolution?
CLASSWORK
RF.ADING (6B)
• Read the passage (4 min.) and answer the questions.
1. What scientific discoveries are needed to say that the Universe will be
developing according to Scenario 1?
2. What scientific discoveries should the intelligent beings make to avoid
the fate of our Universe according to this scenario?
SCENARIO 1. A FINITE SMALL UNIVERSE
The universe can only be finite if there is enough matter inside it to curve
space-time so that it closes on itself. We do not know whether there is enough
matter to do this. *We do know that the amount of vis ible matter is at least onetenth as much as we calculate is necessary for this to happen — and that there
may be enough matter that is presently invisible to make up the difference.
Some of this invisible matter may exist in the form of neutrinos, neutral
particles that interact only very weakly. Neutrinos exist in the universe in large
enough numbers so that if they have a small mass they could provide enough
energy density to close the Universe. *The same may be true about other,
presently unknown, subatomic particles.
If there is enough matter present to make the universe finite then there is also
enough to cause the expansion to eventually stop and be replaced by a
contraction. If this is the actual condition in our universe then we would like to
know when this changeoverWxW occur. We cannot say this precisely, because of
lack of information about the actual amount of matter in the universe, but we can
say that it will not happen for a longtime, probably at least as long as the time
since the Big Bang — 10 to 15 billion years.
*It is usually assumed that the size of a finite universe would only be a few
times larger than the size of that part we are presently aware of, about lO"
kilometers in radius. Yet there is no good reason for believing this cither o n the
basis of observation or of theoretical cosmology. If it were true, then the universe
would begin contracting at a time in the future that is not much longerthan it has
already lived, so that our universe could be said to be middle-aged.
In this scenario, which I call the finite small universe, the future of the
universe does not depend much on the details of particle physics. We know that
nothing much can happen to change the properties and distribution of the
subatomic particles in the universe over the next few tens of billions of years,
until the density of matter becomes very high through the prolonged contraction
of space-time. For example, we know that if protons are unstable, their lifetime
isat least 10-'"timcsgrcatcrthan the present age ofthe universe, sothat in the
scenario under discussion, very few protons would have time to decay before
I he universe contracts back to the Big Crunch. Even the behaviour of much larger
constituents of the universe, such as many stars and galaxies, would remai n pretty
much as they are now during the remaining expansion time for lhe universe.
The study of particle physics as it relates to the future of the finite small
universe is interesting only at two points: when the expansion is reversing to a
collapse, and when the collapse reaches its final stages.
Long before the collapse reaches its final stages, any of the large material
structures such as stars, planets and their inhabitants that exist in the current
universe will have been destroyed by the increase in temperature and density I hat
will take place duringthe period of contraction. Perhaps the most significant
question about any finite universe is whether there is some way that intelligent
beings could avoid being caught up in the eventual Crunch. Even optimistic
writers, such as the American physicist Freeman Dyson, have asserted that this is
probably hopeless. Yet I think that even in this scenario, the ultimate future for
intelligence may not be completely bleak (мрачный). The basis for my optimism
is the notion that the space-time that we inhabit is not all there is, a view that a
number of physicists have considered seriously, both for finite and infinite space times. *For example, it is intellectually irresistib le to think of a finite universe as
embedded in some larger universe, with a higher number of dimensions, just as
the two-dimensional, finite surface of the earth lies in ilnee -dimensional space.
*Indeed, the mathematical description of a finite universe m akes use of such an
embedding into a five-dimensional space-time. I nis approach to the idea of extra
dimensions is different from the one discussed previously, because here the extra
dimensions are not tiny in extent. *Conceivably, both types of extra dim ensions
might exist. If there are large extra dimensions we are free to speculate that other
realms lie in this larger universe, and that their evolution need not parallel that of
our own.
At present, this is no more than a science-fiction plot. However, if there are
more dimensions than those wc know, or four -dimensional space-times in
addition to the one we inhabit, then I think it very likely that there are physical
phenomena that provide connections between them. *lt seems plausible that if
intelligence persists in the universe, it will, in much less time than the many
billions of years before the Big Crunch, find out whether there is anything to this
speculation, and if so how to take advantage of it.
•
29
The passage could be divided into two parts. Where would you divide it? Why? What
is each part about?
•
•
Try to guess the meaning of the italicized phrases in the text.
Translate the sentences marked with an asterisk.
•
Say a few words about lack of knowledge or insufficient knowledge in the field of
astrophysics. Use the following phrases to introduce your statements:
I. Until now we don't know whether....
2. We still don't know where ... .
3. We don't know yet how ....
4. Until now we know almost nothing about ....
5. We still lack precise knowledge of... .
Think and say a few words about:
a) the fate of a finite small universe;
b) lack of scientific facts in favour of this scenario;
c) the fate of the intellectual beings.
HOMEWORK
(to be done in writing)
1. Translate into Russian.
1. Alongside the familiar four fields mentioned ab ove, the unified theories
include another kind of fields, so-called scalar fields which have some
interesting and unusual properties.
2. All the four known forces of nature are vector fields having both magnitude
and direction at every point of space.
3. A scalar field has only magnitude and we might think of a property such as
temperature or density of a liquid as being represented by a scalar field
associated with each point through the volume of the field.
4. A uniform homogeneous scalar field is almost unobscrva ble but filling the
whole universe it effects the properties of all elementary particles.
5. The idea of scalar fields is useful in constructing unified theories because it
helps to determine masses of elementary particles and the way they interact
with other particles.
2. Translate into English. Use the conjunction whether.
1. Я не уверен, стоитли заниматься этой проблемой.
2. Они сами не знают, будет ли она представлять интерес для про мышленности.
3. Никто не знает, применима ли данная теория к решению широ кого круга
(range) проблем.
4. Мы не уверены, достаточно ли надежна методика эт ой серии экспериментов.
5. Неясно, имеет ли только что разработанный метод какие -то преимущества.
UNIT SEVEN
GRAMMAR: INVERSION
В бессоюзных условных предложениях, начинающихся с глаголов were,
had, could, should, союз опускается.
Перевод таких предложений следует начинать с союзов если бы, при
условии, что и т. д.
Например:
Were there any relationship between these events, we would certainly act
differently.
Should they show any uncertainty, we would see it.
Примечание: Русское выражение «Если бы не...» переводится следующим
образом:
Если бы не
But for
— для любого времени
If it were not for
для настоящего и будущего времени
Were it not for
If it had not been for
Had it not been for
But for
If it were not
for Were it
not for
this fact, the data obtained would be correct.
Если бы не этот факт, то полученные данные были бы точными.
• Sentences to be translated.
1. Had the collisions been considered in this case, the equation could have
been obtained.
30
5
3
2. Were it not for the problem of radioactivity, th e development of nuclearpowered aircraft would be much simpler.
3. Were the problem solved it would become possible to avoid these difficulties.
4. Could sound propagate in interplanetary space, it would cover this distance in
14 years.
5. Had you warned me beforehand, I would have been more careful.
6. But forthe several recent discoveries in optics, the instrument in question
could not have been designed in its present form.
7. Were it not for the computer they might not make the necessary calculations
on time.
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
Инверсия, как правило, употребляется при эмоциональном выделе нии или
подчеркивании членов предложения. Инверсия может иметь место в следующих
случаях:
1. В предложениях, начинающихся наречиями. Например :
Here comes (вот идет) our friend. Thus
began our friendship. So ended this terrible
struggle.
2. Когда предложение начинается с распространенного обстоятель ства. Например:
То this branch of physics was added another one.
Гп front of the first screen are placed two other screens, each havi ng a small
hole in it.
В предложениях, начинающихся наречиями hardly едва, no sooner как
только, never, seldom, often, not only, little и др. Например:
Never have I known such a man! Little did
we think of our future then.
• Sentences to be translated.
1. Fundamental to all physical sciences are the concepts associated with the
atomic theory of matter.
2. Satisfactory as the theory is, it cannot account for all the data obtained.
3. Only by means of the Space Telescope can we detect distant stellar objects.
4. No sooner did they switch on the device than it burnt out.
5. Nowhere before could we observe such a strange phenomenon.
READING (7A)
■ Read the passage carefully and find facts to prove or disprove the idea that the h-.m-uomb
'-tniriip e of the Universe can be explained in terms ofthe chaotic inflation 'npothesis.
CHAOTIC INFLATION
Since 1980, cosmologists have modified considerably their theories ofthe 'licsi
stages ofthe evolution of the Universe. This modification is based 111 ><>11 the socalled "inflationary" Universe scenario. The most promising version of this idea —
"chaotic inflation" is described below by Andrei Lindc, ти- ofthe architects of the
new model.
The essence ofthe inflationary hypothesis is that we live in a single domain hi' the
Universe, a region corresponding to one crystal domain, which has
■
\pandcd so much ("inflated") that the domain walls are far beyond the range
. il our telescopes. The few monopolcs present in the original small volume of 11 к-1
.'niverse that has been blown up to the scale of 10 - 8 cannot play a significant mil- in
the evolution of our local bubble of space -time, so that the concept и-moves the
monopole problem. But how and why did the Universe as we know inflate in this
way?
1'he first version ofthe inflationary Universe was suggested by Allan Guth
i M IT, USA) in July 1980. His scenario was based on the idea of h igh...... pet attire phase transitions, which provided the energy fora rapid burst of
■
\pausion early in the life ofthe Universe. Like watergiving up its latent heat
of fusion as it freezes, those phase transitions, Guth suggeste d, might give up i-iiergy,
which went to make the Universe expand exponentially for a short i ime. But as Guth
himself pointed out at the time, this early version of inflation predicted an extremely
inhomogencous state for the Universe afterthe phase i i.uisition.
In October 1981, I put forward an improved version of the inflation idea, which,
forobvious reasons, became known as the "new inflationary scenario". I his resolved
some of the difficulties in Guth's original version. This new inflationary scenari o
caused a stir among cosmologists and physicists, and was u -гу widely discussed. New
inflation resolved many ofthe large discrepancies between the predict ions of field
theory and the observations ofthe real Universe, and suggested that we were on the
right way towards an understanding ofthe I inverse birth. But even this variation
proved impossible to reconcile completely with the most realistic theories of
elementary particles developed. In I9S3, however, 1 was able to resolve most of those
remaining difficulties with another variation ofthe inflationary scenario, called
"chaotic inflation". 1'his abandons the idea that high -temperature phase transitions
provided the push behind the inflation in the very early Universe. In my opinion this
scenario i: much simpler and more natural than other versions ofthe inflationary I i
''verse.
Order out of Chaos
32
According to the unified theories of particle physics, the Universe is filled with
many types of uniform, homogeneous scalar fields. The nature of each field i s
determined by the position of a minimum in its potential energy function, the field
rolling down to its minimum as the Universe cooled. But at the very early stages of
the Universe evolution, when none of the fields had yet had time to roll down into its
minimum state, each field could be homogeneous and have a different value in
different parts of the Universe. In that split second after the moment of creation,
there had not been enough time forthc field to become homogeneous. This is what 1
refer to as a "chaotic" distribution of the field and it has interestingand unexpected
consequences.
If the field in one region is initially almost homogeneous and is far from its
equilibrium state (that is, it has a large potential energy) then it "rolls down" Hnto
the minimum very slowly. But as the Universe expands, the energy density of all the
particles in the Universe decreases very rapidly. So, the total energy density of the
cooling Universe quickly becomes equal to the slowly changing potential energy of
the scalar field.
According to the general theory of relativity, the rate at which the Universe
expands depends on the energy density of the matter that fills the Universe. If the
energy density is constant (or changes very slowly) then the equations tell us th at the
Universe must expand with ever increasing speed, exponentially.
This period of inflation is longer if the field started out further away from its
minimum value, because it takes longer to roll down to the minimum. The simplest
theories of the scalar field suggest that during the exponential expansion the size of
the Universe was blown up by a factor of 10" ш "°", and that the largest domain must
have grown from the region originally filled with the field that was in a state furthest
away from its equilibrium value.
When the field rolls down to its minimum value it oscillates to and fro about the
minimum and energy from the oscillating field is converted into elementary particles.
By the time the oscillation has damped itself out, the Universe (or a particular
domain) has been filled with hot particles and the subsequent evolution of that
domain can be described adequately by the standard model of the hot big bang. The
only difference is that there was a phase of exponential expansion inflating a tiny
seed of the Universe by a factor of I u 1000000 , before the outburst from the hot big
bang itself. But this small difference leads to very important consequences.
Suppose, for example, that the exponentially expanding domain started out very
curved. After expanding 10 100 "" 0 " times, however, the geometry of space inside such
a domain scarcely differs from the Euclidea n geometry of flat space, just as the
surface of a balloon expanded by a similaramount would look very much like the
surface of a flat plane. Similarly, any irregularities are smoothed away by the
expansion (inflation) so that the domain becomes very homog eneous and isotropic.
Imagine how flat and smooth even the Himalayas would seem if the radius of the
Earth grew to 10 1 """""" times its present size.
(to be continued)
•
book through the passage and find English equivalents for the following Russian phrases.
самые ранние стадии эволюции; сыграть значительную роль; выдви нул
улучшенную версию; исходная версия; вызвала сенсацию; разре шил многие из
крупных противоречий; вряд ли отличается от; по явной причине; крошечное
семя;
суть
гипотезы;
высокотемпературные
ф азовые
превращения;
экспоненциально расширяющаяся область
•
Match each word in A with its synonym in B.
A. I. to burst; 2, to blow up; 3. to abandon; 4. to point out; 5. to reconcile;
6. to resolve; 7. to stir; 8. essence; 9. scarcely; 10. discrepancy
B. a) hardly; b) inconsistence (difference); c) to make agree; d) to inflate;
c) to decide firmly; 1) to show direction; g) to give up wholly and finally;
h) the very being or power of a thing; i) to break into pieces; j) to be
emotionally moved
•
Answer the following questions.
!. What problem is the article concerned with?
2.
What is one of the most promising hypotheses concerning the origin of the
Universe, according to the author?
3.
What is the essence of this hypothesis?
4.
Who was the first version of this hyp othesis suggested by?
5.
When was it suggested?
6.
What were the inconsistencies of this version?
7.
What was the last version of this hypothesis called?
8.
What main idea was introduced into chaotic hypothesis?
9.
How does the author explain the first instants of the or igin of the Universe?
10. What consequences did the first phase of exponential expansion of a tiny seed
of the Universe lead to?
•
Think and say a few words about:
a) the historical aspect of scientific hypotheses on the origin of the Universe;
b) the hypothesis of inflationary Universe;
c) the essence of the hypothesis.
CL A SS WO к к
33
READING ( 7 H )
• Before reading the passage below, let us remember be*. ; :io «
Universe.
Condition
. i V x - v аГ
CoaseqiiiiKi-
Enough matter to close on itself
1 . Our Universe i s n i i d < :-.-ageJ
2. Expansion —> stop ; с-.лШжо'.ч 1 . —>
Big Crunch
3 . Protons will not have ите to с сcay ( 1 0
4
years)
• Now, read the passage and find all the similarities and diticrciices with i > . >se 14
Scenario 2 ( 5 minutes are preferable).
SCENARIO2. A IARGE FINITE UNIVERSE
From what we presently know about cosmology, it is possible th. the Universe is
finite but immensely larger than we can observe at this time, "'"his possibility would
require that the density of energy in the Universe be si ; g !, , .iv larger than the amount
needed to cause the Universe to close.
If this is the actual situation, the Universe will continue to expand fo- very much
longer than it has already existed. Although it will eventually sk. - \ v ' begin to
contract, our current space-time is in its infancy. The long-term fir. г re ofthe
Universe would then depend on the behaviour of matter, so that s. -:'i -Universe is of
more interest to physicists than that of Scenario I.
In a large finite Universe, very slow processes that could cha nge the char.ictc
ofthe matter in the Universe would have time to act during the long period of
expansion. *Physicists have identified a numberofsueh hypothetical processes, all of
which act over time scales that are much greater than the present age o r the Universe,
but which could be considered short compared to its ultimate life span. One such
process is the decay of protons into lighter particles, which, if it occurs, would
require at least 10" years on the average. *Another possih, ity is that quantum
mechanical effects will lead relatively small bits of matter to spontaneously collapse
into black holes. It is difficult to make precise estimates of how much time such an
event would take, but it is likely to take extremely long, much longer even than for
protons to decay. Some matter will end up i n black holes more quickly, as gravity
makes some stars and galaxies collapse.
*Although the ultimate fate of the black holes is unknown, as they slowly
evaporate, most of the matter that was caught in them will be transformed into
radiation by the process conceived of by 1 Iawking. Therefore, whet her or not
isolated protons decay into.lighter particles, ifthe Universe continues to expand lor
long enough, much of the matter presently in it will ultimately be chan ged into
photons and any other massless particles that may exist.
There is still another possibility, which is relevant ifthe Universe contains large
numbers of neutrinos and antineutrinos, or other weakly interacting particles with
small mass. Like electrons and positrons, these neutrinos and antineutrinos can, when
they collide, convert into photons, a process known as annihilation. Although the rate
at which this happens is low, if the Universe lives long enough, many neutrinos and
antineutrinos will annihilate. There is a theory that the energy density of these weakly
interacting particles produces the gravity that holds galaxies and clusters of galaxies
together. *If this is true, then their annihilation could lead to the instability of
galaxies, the most characteristic objects in our present Universe. It seems likely, then,
that the most familiar objects in the present Universe, from atoms through galactic
clusters, are not eternal. They will disappear in the future, ifthe Universe lives long
enough.
This scenario should not surprise us. If the most important constituents of the
present Universe are destined to disappear, they will surely be replaced by something
new. From what we know of the past evolution of the Universe this has happened
several times in the past as the Universe went from one dominated by many distinct
particle species to one dominated by photons to one dominated by protons.
Some physicists have tried to describe the Universe that would develop after the
protons have decayed or the black holes have swallowed up matter as we know it.
These considerations would apply either to the large finite Universe of the present
scenario (so long as it is still expanding) or to the next scenario, in which the
Universe is finite and expands forever. The analysis is not complete, but it suggests
that some forms of matter other than photons would persist (continue to act) in such a
future Universe.
The protons that are present in our Universe would decay into positrons. These
positrons can annihilate wit h the electrons already present to yield photons.
*However, the extent to which this happens depends on the rate of expansion of the
Universe, which by increasing the average distance between particles, decreases the
chance of annihilation. The analyses th at have been given suggest that many of the
positrons will Find themselves too faraway from an electron to annihilate.
Consequently, some positrons, and an equal number of electrons, will remain
indefinitely. The same appears to be true for neutrinos of finite mass, if there are any
such particles. In any event, these particles that remain could form more complex
stable structures, bound together by gravity orelectromagnetism. These structures will
be immensely largerthanthe familiar atoms, indeed, some may be larger than the
present observable Universe!
How complex these structures can become is an unsolved problem. It is difficult
to analyse it in detail, because of the extreme disparity in scale between the structures
that are familiar to us and anything t hat may evolve in the late
34
Universe. However, this change in scale is not unprecedented in the history of the
Universe. *In its earliest moments, the whole region that eventually evolved into the
present Universe was much smaller than an atom or even a sub atomic particle. *If
there could have been an intelligence that functioned in the early instants of the
Universe, the familiar structures of our present Universe would seem as grossly
extended as the supergalactic atoms of the late Universe would appear to us. *It is not
beyond our ability to understand complexity in the late Universe, once we set our
minds to it. 1 believe that understanding that complexity, and solving its related
problems, will represent a novel branch of science in the future.
*No matter how large, ifthe Universe is finite, eventually the expansion will
cease and contraction will take over. The details of what will happen during this
contraction would be rather different from those in Scenario 1, because the contents
of the Universe would be different in each case. *Yet, the outcome is no less
mysterious, so poorly are the phases of turnover and contraction under stood. *If we
learn that the Universe is finite, unraveling what will take place during these phases
will become one of the important endeavours of future science.
•
Try to guess the meaning of the words given in italics in the text.
•
Translate the sentences marked with an asterisk.
•
Look through the text and try to answer the following questions.
1. What conditions are needed for the Universe to be larger than that in Scenario
1?
2. What will the future of the Universe depend upon according to Scenario 2?
3. Why is Scenario 2 of greater interest to scientists as compared with Scenario
1?
4. What do scientists hypothesize concerning the present forms of matter?
HOMEWORK
(to be done in writing)
1. Translate into Russian.
1. In one specific cosmological model, recently proposed by an American
physicist Alan Guth, known as the inflationary universe, all of the visible
universe and a great deal of space-time beyond it, originated in a tiny bubble
in the very early universe.
2. This bubble contained a high level of quantum fields which caused it to
undergo an expansion much more rapid than that expected according to
35
the standard Big Bang theory, where th e expansion is influenced only by the
presence of subatomic particles.
3. The rapid expansion diluted the material contents of our universe to a very
low density, and none ofthe particles present in the universe before this
"inflation" began are present today.
4. Instead, the matter in the present Universe was produced by a phase transition
at the end ofthe inflation, in which some of the energy that was contained in
background fields became converted to particles.
5. Inthc inflationary Universe, space-time beyond the volume of expansion ofthe
original bubble would be different from space -time inside it.
6. In this model, the different regions of the Universe arc somewhat like
different cultures, developing independently of one another, and unaware of
each other's existence.
7. We are presently unaware of conditions beyond our own bubble, because
there has not yet been enough time since the beginning of the Universe for
any light originating outside to reach us.
8. If the Universe continues to exist indefinitely, we would even tually become
aware of these foreign regions of space-time — and find that matter and
energy in these regions have very different properties from those familiar to
us.
2. Translate into English.
1. Этот журнал содержит ряд статей на данную тему.
2. Если бы вам удалось достать его, мы могли бы получить много ценной
информации.
3. Одна из статей даст интересную трактовку (treatment) данной темы.
4. В ней дается обзор (review) данной темы в целом.
5. Я думаю, что эта статья представляет собой ценный вклад в науку.
UNIT EIGHT
GRAMMAR: THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
1.
It is essential desirable that astronomers (should)determine the mass of...
doubtful, etc.
Важно
(существенно),
определили массу...
2.
The laws of mechanics require suggest
demand
propose, etc.
If
чтобы
that the distance of each body
(should)be related to...
Законы механики требуют, чтобы
расстояние
каждого
тела
...
находилось в соответствии с ...
the Moon were one halfit would "]
Provided
might
Providing
could
Supposing
астрономы
I
be.
J
Если бы Луна составляла половину то она
была бы ...
If it were to + Infinitive = если бы (относится к будущему) If I were to do
that, what would you say?
• Read the following extract. Pay attention to the grammar forms in bold type. Translate
them into Russian.
1. Now it is essential that astronomers (should) determine the mass of large
numbers of other objects in the Univers e. There is the Moon, for instance,
62
Earth's one satellite, which is 384,00 km from us (1 km is = 5/8 mi) and which circles
the Earth once every 27 1/3 days.
More precisely both the Earth and the Moon circle a common center of gravity.
2. The laws of mechanics require that the distance of each body from that center
of gravity (should) be related to its mass. In other words, if the Moon were one half as
massive as the Earth, it would be two times as far from the center of gravity as the
Earth is, if it were one third as massive as the Earth, it would be three times as far; and
so on.
After Isaac Asimov. "The Collapsing Universe".
WO R D AN D PH RA S E S TU DY
Question п.
v.
in question
(syn. involved
open to question
beyond question
out ofthe question
— вопрос, проблема
— сомневаться, ставить под вопрос
— исследуемый, рассматриваемый
о ко юром идет речь, concerned, in issue, in point)
— сомнительный, спорный
— вне сомнения
— не может быть и речи
Translate into Russian.
1. The method involved provided them with interesting results.
2. The quantity in question is related to the volume of this container.
3. Our being close to the solution ofthe problem is out of the question.
READING (8A)
• Read the passage and answer these two questions:
1. What does the Universe look like according to the chaotic inflation
hypothesis?
2. What cosmological problems does this hypothesis account for?
CHAOTIC INFLATION
Like all inflationary scenari os, chaotic inflation removes the monopole problem.
No new monopolcs arc created after the inflation, so any that originaliy existed arc
separated from one another by an amount in proportion to the magnitude of the
exponential increase in the size of the U niverse. The i ntc -tor of each domain looks
like a mini-Universe with a typical size greater than the distance we can see. UP cm,
and for all practical purposes ourdomain is the Universe. But according to this
scenario there arc many such mini -Universes separated from each other by domain
walls in which the scalar fields take different values and in which, therefore,
different laws ot'ohys'cs operate. We live in a domain in which the interactions just
happen to have been broken into the strong and weak for ces and elcctromagnetism.
This has clearly influenced the development of life as well as the evolution of the
Universe as we know it, and life of our type may be impossible in other aomains with
different laws of physics.
The division of the Universe into many mini-Universes also makes it possible to
suggest an answer to the question of why our space is three -dimensional. The process
of compactification (shrinking and rolling up of some of the original dimensions)
may occur differently in domains that are f ar enough apart from one another. And,
once again, life, as we know it, may only exist in those domains which are three dimensional. The physicist Paul 'ihrenfest pointed out, as long ago as 1917, that the
threc-dimcnsienality of space is intimately connec ted with the way matter behaves.
Both gravitational and electromagnetic forces obey inverse square laws in our
Universe and by generalizing the equations that describe these interactions and
solving them in other dimensions mathematicians have shown that i n space with n
dimensions the result is always an n— 1 power law. In four dimensions, the laws
would both be inverse cubes and, it turns out, there would be no stable orbits for
cither planets in solar systems or electrons in atoms. The same is true for al l higher
dimensions. In a two-dimensional Universe, tilings are no better, because n— 1 is 1,
and neither gravity nor elcctromagnetism is affected by distance at all. So atoms and
planetary systems may only exist together in a domain with three dimensions of
space, like our domain of the Universe. Sothc chaotic inflation scenario provides a
simple solution to most of the problems with the standard big bang model.
The inflationary Universe scenario is now only five years old, and is still rapidly
changing and developing as new ideas come to the fore. We do not know which part
of the scenario will survive even for the next five years. But already it has proved
able to solve about ten major cosmological problems in one simple model. Ideas
which would have sounded like fantastic science-fiction only a decade ago, such as
the creation of all the matter in the observable Universe (I0-" tons) by gravitational
forces operating inside a domain which originally contained less than 10 s g of matter
and was less than 10"" cm across, now seem to be necessary ingredients in any
complete theory of the Universe.
37
And how long did all that activity take? 1 have saved the most startling fact until last.
The phase of exponential inflation that is critical to our modern understand ing of the
Universe probably lasted for less than 10' 30 seconds.
•
Look through the passage and find English equivalents for the following Russian phrases.
достаточно далеко отстоять друг от друга; подчиняться закону об ратных квадратов;
степенной закон; то же справедливо и для; ситуация не лучше и для; по мере
выдвижения новых идей; дает простое решение; являются, по -видимому,
необходимыми составляющими; поразительный факт; принимают различные значения;
для решающего (переломного) понимания
•
Match each word in A with its synonym in B.
A. 1. to survive; 2. ingredient; 3. to startle; 4. to shrink; 5. true
B. a) component; b) to astonish; c) to remain alive; d) to contract;
e)exact
•
Match each word in A with its antonym in B.
A. 1. to stop; 2. to shrink; 3. far apart from; 4. slow; 5. true; 6. inverse;
7. to survive
B. a) direct; b) to expand; c) rapid; d) next to; c) false; 0 to die; g) to
last
•
Answer the following questions using the information from the text or any other sources.
1. What is the Universe according to the chaotic inflation scenario?
2. What problems does the chaotic hypothesis remove and why?
3. What does each domain of the Universe look like?
4. How does this hypothesis explain the dimensionality of our system?
5. How does the author account for th e first instants of the origin of the Universe?
6. What really fantastic science-fiction figures do scientists have to realize in
developing a complete theory of the Universe?
7. Which of the facts impress your imagination most?
1 Г.. И. Куршпии.н
38
65
CLASSWORK
READING (8B)
Before reading the passage below, let us remember Scenarios 1 and 2 of a finite small
and large Universes.
Scenario 1
Scenario 2
Condition
Enough matter for the Universe to
close on itself.
The density of energy in the Universe
is slightly larger than needed for
the Universe to close.
Scenario 1
Scenario 2
Consequences
1. Middle-aged Universe.
2. Expansion —> stop —»
contraction —> Big Crunch.
3. Protons will not have time to
decay.
1. The Universe is in its infancy.
2. Very long expansion —> stop —>
contraction —> Big Crunch.
3. Decay of protons into lighter
particles, spontaneous collapse of
matter into black holes. Annihi lations of neutrinos and anti neutrinos. I nstability of galaxies.
• Now, read the passage and give your opinion on the fate of the Universe according to
Scenario 3.
SCENARIO3. AN INFINITE UNIVERSE
*If the density of matter were less than a critical amount, corresponding to about
10 29 grams per cubic centimeter — about ten milligrams in a region the size of the
Earth — then the Universe is infinite, and will expand for ever. " ■Objects in the
Universe will, on the average, get farther and farther apart, except for those such as
the contents ofthe solar system, which are held together by forces such as gravity. As
in Scenario 2, the contents of the Universe will change, and their eventualform will
depend on presently unknown properties of subatomic particles and on the end state
of black holes. On the whole, the future ofthe Universe in Scenario 3 is about the
same as in Scenario 2, except that the expansion never slows to zero an d reverses.
The Universe of Scenario 3 becomes one in which protons, electrons, neutrinos and
their antiparticles are spread ever more thinly through larger and larger regions of
space. *Once again, however, we do not know whether gravity and elcctromagnet ism
would allow these objects to form complex structures able to persist indefinitely.
However, there is a missing piece in our puzzle, one that might apply to the large
finite Universe. Most cosmological models have assumed that the Universe is
homogeneous — that all parts of it are the same, including those beyond the reach of
our telescopes and hence unknown. The assumption of homogeneity has been made in
order to simplify the mathematical description that physicists give to the Universe.
*Recently, this assumption has been questioned. We have seen that physicists
believe that some features of the present Universe depend on the broken symmetry
that occurred in the early Universe. Yet this symmetry breaking need not have
occurred uniformly over the whole of spacetime. Just as a lake in winter can be liquid
in some regions and solid in others, so might different regions of space be in different
phases, which would imply different physical properties for the matter in it. For
example, the surplus of what we call matter in our visible Universe might be replaced
by equal amounts of matter and ant imatter or a surplus of antimatter in parts of
space-time beyond our present horizon. But now let us return to the view that the
properties of particles will change slo wly as the Universe expands. Some scientists
have predicted that rapid phase transitions similar to those that took place in the early
Universe will occur in the future. This could happen if the present configuration of
quantum fields in our region of spac e has more energy than another configuration, and
is therefore unstable against transformation into the lower energy configuration.
*lf such phase transitions occur, they are expected to begin in one place, perhaps
as the result of a random fluctuation, an d then spread outward at the speed of light,
eventually encompassing every point in space. *As the transition passes through any
point, those properties of matter that depend on the background quantum fields
present there, would have to change suddenly bec ause of the new conditions. *A
sudden change in the properties of subatomic particles would lead to tremendous
changes in any structures composed of Ihcm, and it is unlikely that these structures
would persist. It has even been suggested that such a phase change has begun in
anothersection ofthe Universe, and is now approaching us at the speed of light. But
there is no evidence forthis possibility, and we need to analyse it further before
adding it to the list of environmental catastrophes that we need to worry about.
If the Universe continues to expand long enough for the matter to change its form
drastically, then intelligent creatures may have agreater role to play in the distant
future than they would in a Universe that eventually contracts. They would h ave to
grapple with two problems: the disappearance of the protons and bound neutrons that
form the material bases for most structures in the present Universe, and the ever
smaller amounts of free energy that would be available to preserve order in whateve r
structures might replace them. *No good solutions to these problems have yet
emerged, but since we have been studying them for only a few years, and will not
need the answers for 10 J0 yearsorso, wc need not despair.
• Try to guess the meaning of the words given in italics in the text.
• Translate the sentences marked with an asterisk.
• Look through the text and try to answer the following questions.
1. What conditions arc needed for our Universe to be infinite?
2. What factors will play the key role in the fate of a n infinite Universe?
3. What fatal consequences could the inhomogencity of the Universe lead to?
4. Are there any reasonable solutions to the problems?
5. Why does the author think that human beings need not despair about the
future of the Universe?
HOMEWORK
(to be done in writing)
1. Translate into Russian.
1. To a physicist a liquid is very symmetric — whichever way you look at it, it
looks the same.
2. But when the liquid cools and begins to crystallize, different regions of the
liquid may begin to crystallize with different orientations of their growing
crystal lattices.
3. When these different crystal lattices meet one another they join together as
best as they can and inevitably produce boundaries called defects.
4. Within each domain there is a preferred orientation of the crystal lattice, but
adjacent domains separated by a defect may have very different orientations.
5. The overall symmetry has been destroyed.
6. During the phase transitions ofthe cooling early Universe, something similar
to the crystallization of a liquid m ay have happened.
7.
As the Universe continued to expand and cool, the quantum fields went
through several distinct phase transitions.
8. Each of these led to a change in the overall level of quantum fields
everywhere in space and an associated change in the pro perties of some
subatomic particles.
40
9.
The last of the phase changes is thought to have taken place when the
temperature ofthe Universe was about 10 11 times as great as today.
10. After that, all subatomic particles had the same properties that we find them
to have now.
11. According to theoretical analyses, all of these extraordinary changes took
place within a very short period of time — perhaps in the very microsecond
or so after the expansion ofthe Universe began.
12. In other words, the main subatomic features of o ur Universe were determined
in a flash of time, and the consequences have been working themselves out
ever since.
2. Translate into English. Use such phrases as in question (progress), under consideration
(discussion, study).
1. Открытие, о котором идет речь, пока широко не известно.
2. Исследуемая проблема может повлиять на развитие всей от расли.
3. Обсуждаемые сейчас данные тесно связаны с этой проблемой.
4. Рассматриваемый подход кажется вполне удовлетворительным.
5. Исследовательская работа,
хорошие результаты.
проводимая
в
нашей
лаборатории,
даст
Part III.
THE WORLD OF SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
UNIT NINE GRAMMAR'. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
1
как если бы, как будто бы
as though
Тело ведет себя так, как будто бы
ему сообщили...
The object behaves as if it were
given some energy at the start.
2. that
для того чтобы
so that
in order that
чтобы не
lest
Keep the temperature so that the Поддерживайте необходимую substance
(should) not be cooled.
температуру, чтобы вещество не
остыло.
J хотякакбыни
3. though
although
J
Though he may (might) be busy he Как бы он ни был занят, он за-will complete
the work on time.
кончит работу вовремя.
Sentences to be translated.
1. Acid is added so that the metal should dissolve.
2. This gas must be kept in a special vessel lest it be evaporated.
3. Though such an apparatus be developed, this would not solve the problem.
4. One cannot speak of particles and waves as though they were two
different things.
5. Make exact calculations lest you should fail with your experiment.
6. Be careful lest you should make mistakes in calculations.
7. In determining the orbit of a planet we may neglect accelerations ofthe
sun and treat it as if it were at rest.
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
A + -iy
Adv
=
accurate + -iy accurately
=
•
Form adverbs from the following adjectives and translate them into. Russian.
pure, comparative, rapid, equal, ordinary, certain, accidental, radioactive,
previous, rare, heavy, presumble
READING (9A)
•
Read the passage attentively and be prepared to describe the phenomenon of natural
radioactivity.
THE DISCOVERY OF RADIOACTIVITY
As is the case with so many other discoveries, the discovery ofthe
phenomenon of radioactivity was purely accidental. It was discovered in 1896 by
a French physicist, A.H. Becquerel (1852—1908), who was interested at that time
in the phenomenon of fluorescence, i.e. the ability of certain substances to
transform the ultraviolet radiation that falls on them into visible light. In one of
the drawers of his desk Becquerel kept a collect ion of various minerals that he
was going to use for his studies, but because of other pressing matters, the
collection remained untouched fora considerable period of time. It happened that
in the drawerthere were also several unopened boxes of photographi c plates, and
one day Becquerel took one of the boxes in order to photograph something or
other. When he developed the plates he was disappointed to find that they were
badly fogged, as if previously exposed to light. A check on other boxes showed
that they were in the same poor condition, which was difficult to understand since
all the boxes were sealed and the plates inside were wrapped in thick black paper.
What could be the cause of this mishap? Could it have something to do with one
ofthe minerals in the drawer? Being of an inquisitive mind, Becquerel
investigated the situation and was able to trace the guilt to a piece of uranium ore
labeled "Pitchblende from Bohemia". The reader must take into account, of
course, that at that time the name "uranium" was not in vogue as it is today, and
that, in fact, only very few people, even among scientists, had ever heard about
that comparatively rare and not very useful chemical element. But the ability of a
uranium compound to fog photographic plates through a th ick cardboard box and
a layer of black paper rapidly brought this obscure clement to a prominent
position in physics.
The existence of penetrating radiation that could pass through layers of
ordinarily opaque materials as if they were made of clear glass w as a recognized
fact at the time of Becquerel's discovery. In fact, only a year earlier (1895) a
German physicist, Wilhclm Roentgen (1845—1923), discovered what arc now
known as X-rays, which can penetrate equally well through cardboard, black
paper, or the human body.
Although special high voltage equipment is required to produce X -rays, the
radiation "discovered by Becqucrel was flowing quite steadily and without any
external excitation from the piece of uranium ore resting in his desk. What could
be the origin of this unusual radiation? Why was it specifically associated with
the clement uranium and, as studies found, with two other heavy elements known
as thorium and actinium? The early studies of the newly discovered phenomenon,
which was called "radioactivity", showed that the emission of mysterious
radiation was completely unaffected by physical or chemical conditions. We can
stick a radioactive element into a very hot flame or drop it into liquid air without
the slightest effect on the intensity ofthe mysterious radiation it emits. No matter
whether we have pure metallic uranium, or its oxide which is contained in
pitchblende, the radiation flows out at a rate proportional to the amount of
uranium in the sample. These facts ruled out any possibility of ascribing the
phenomenon of radioactivity to any kind of chemical properties of this element,
and led the early investigators to the conclusion that the phenomenon of
radioactivity is the intrinsic property of the atoms of these peculiar elements and
that its cause must be deeply rooted in the atomic interior.
• Find equivalents for the following Russian phrases.
как это происходит со многими другими открытиями; чисто слу чайное;
интересоваться; видимый свет; из-за других неотложныхдел; в течение
значительного периода времени; проявить пластины; были в таком же
плохом состоянии; причина этой неудачи; могло ли это б ыть связано с; быть
популярным; проникающая радиация; светоне проницаемые материалы; на
излучение совершенно не влияет; без ма лейшего влияния; эти факты
исключали возможность; причина, должно быть, кроется; внутреннее
строение атома.
Re-read the passage and answer the following questions.
1.
Who was the phenomenon of natural radioactivity discovered by?
2.
Was this discovery really made quite accidentally?
3.
What problem did Becquerel study at the time?
4.
What did he keep minerals for in one ofthe drawers of his de sk?
5.
What did he see when he developed the photographic plates?
6.
Why did he begin checking all the boxes with the plates?
7.
Under what conditions were the boxes kept?
8.
What was the cause of this mishap?
9.
Was Becquerel greatly surprized to discover the radiation?
10. What penetrating radiation was discovered a year before that?
11. Who discovered this radiation?
12. Who were the first investigators ofthe phenomenon of radioactivity
discovered by Becquerel?
13. What conclusion did the first investigators come to? Why did they come to
such a conclusion?
14. What substances is the radiation emitted from?
Be prepared to say a few words about.
1. The history ofthe discovery of natural radioactivity.
2. Radioactive elements and types of radioactive emissions.
3. Radioactive processes in nature.
4. Radioactive emissions and their applications (radioisotopes, radiobiology,
radiocarbon dating, radiodiagnosis).
Match each word in Column I with its synonym in Column II.
to exclude, regardless of, to influ ence,
to be the case, because of, since, to
because, to happen, to be in fashion, on
take into account, no matter, to
account of, to take into consideration,
affect, to cause, to be in vogue, to
to bring about
rule out
II
• Fill in the blanks with the proper word using the words in brackets.
(purified, purely, purification)
1. The process of... is rather complicated.
It is a ... theoretical problem.
How is the material... in this case?
The discovery ofthe phenomenon of radioactivity was ... accidental. (excited,
excitation)
2. The radiation discovered by Becquerel was flowing without any external
... from the piece of uranium ore.
The highly ... atoms arc often called Rydbergatoms, aftcrthe Swedish
spectroscopist Yohanncs Rydberg.
Both the ion and target atom undergo electronic ... during the collision.
(exposed, exposure)
3. The technique is based on the use of long... to record an object's motion.
The plates were badly fogged, as if previously ... to light.
Several ofthe animals which were ... to radiation have died since.
CLASSWORK
READING (9B)
• Skim the passage rapidly (2 min.) and answer the following questions.
1. Did Becquerel observe in the experiment exactly what he expected to see?
2. What three rays did the original beam split into?
3. What were these rays called?
In order to study the nature of the discovered radiation, Becquerel arranged the
following very simple experiment. He placed a small amount of uranium in a deep
hole made in a lead block so that only a thin beam of radiation emerged from the
groove. He also placed a magnet over the block in such a way that the magnetic lines
of force were running perpendicular to the direction of the emerging beam. Under
these conditions one could expect three different results.
If the radiation emitted by uranium were short electromagnetic waves similar to
X-rays, no deflection should take place.
If, on the otherhand, the radiation were fast -moving electric particles, like the
cathode and anode rays in J J. Thomson's tube, the beam should be deflected to the
left in the case of a negative charge and to the ri ght in the ease of a positive one. In
Becquerel's experiment all three things happened, and the original beam emerging
from the hole split into three parts. The part that consisted of particles carrying a
positive charge was named ос-rays and was later proved (by Rutherford) to be a
stream of doubly ionized helium atoms, i.e. a stream of helium nuclei. The part
consisting of negatively charged particles, which turned out to be ordinary electrons,
was named fj-rays, whereas the undeflected beam formed by short-wave
electromagnetic radiation similar to X -rays received the name of y-rays.
•
Re-read the passage and say a few words about the three kinds of radioactive rays. Give a
headline to the text.
•
Give a free translation of the following passage.
До открытия природной радиоактивности в конце XIX в. ядерные процессы
оставались неизвестными.
Испускание излучения ураном, открытое в 1896 г. А. Беккерелем, было
первым явлением ядерного происхождения, наблюдаемым чело веком. В то время
были только что открыты В. Рентгеном Х-лучи, создаваемые катодными лучами
втрубках, в которых наблюдаласьтакже силь ная флуоресценция. А. Пуанкаре
выдвинул гипотезу, что испускание X-лучей может быть связано с явлением
флуоресценции. А. Беккерель, желая проверить это предп оложение, использовал
в качестве флуоресцирующих веществ соли урана, применявшиеся в работах его
отцом. Он обнаружил, что соли действительно испускают излучение, способное
производить фотографическое действие через л исток бумаги и ионизи ровать
воздух подобно рентгеновским лучам, однако испускание этого излучения
наблюдается также хорошо и с нефлуоресцирующими со единениями урана. Мари
Кюри предприняла изучение этого нового явления в декабре 1897: она произвела
ионизационным методом точ ное измерение интенсивности излучения урана и
показала, что аналогичное излучение испускается торием.
HOMEWORK
(to be done in writing)
1. Translate into Russian.
1. It is necessary that the intensity of radiation should be measured very
accurately.
44
2. The object behaves as if it were given some energy at the start.
3. Keep the temperature lest the substance should be overcooled.
4. In some calculations the air is treated as if it had no viscosity.
5. He suggested that the tunnel diode devices should be constructed from
heavily doped semiconductors.
6. The whole weight of a body acts as though it were concentrated at a single
point, this point being called the centre of gravity.
7.
It is desirable that the errorsignal should be isolated from the detector.
8. The laws of mechanics require that the distance of each body from the center
of gravity should be related to its mass.
2. Translate into English.
1. Предлагается, чтобы эксперименты провели в совершенно иных условиях.
2. Как бы мне хотелось принять участие в этой конференции!
3. Будь осторожен, чтобы прибор не сломался снова.
4. Проблемы обсуждалисьтак, какбудто имели большое значение.
5. Было бы трудно завершить исследование без его помоши.
6. Важно, чтобы реакция не прекратилась.
7.
Он потребовал, чтобы все вычисления были проведены тща тельно.
UNIT TEN GRAMMAR:
GERUND
Forms of Gerund
Indefinite
Perfect
Active
solving
having solved
Passive
being solved
having been solved
FUNCTIONS OF GERUND
Subject
Predicate
Direct Object
Prepositional
Object (of)
Attribute (of)
Adverbial modifier
(in)
Adverbial modifier
(on)
Adverbial modifier
(by)
Adverbial modifier
(without)
Solving physical problems is a difficult job. Решение
(решать)... His having solved the problem surprised me. To, что
on решил...
Our aim is solving the problem.... решение (решить)
He likes solving difficult problems. ... решать (решение)
I know of the problem having been solved.
что задача была
решена.
The way of solving the problem is not easy.
Решить (решение)...
In solving the problem he made some mistakes.
Решая...
On solving the problem he proceeded to making experiments.
Решив...
By solving the problem he got the required results. Решая
(решив)...
You cannot do without solving the problem. ...
не решив (без решения)...
7
7
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
re- = again + re- + N = N re- +
construction = reconstruction
re- + V = V re- + model
= remodel
•
Translate the following words into Russian:
retake, retrace, reestablish, rearrange, reproduction, redirect, re distribution,
recharge, recapture, redefine
RE AD I N G (10A)
•
Read the passage attentively and be prepared to say a few words about "induced" or
"artificial" radioactivity.
NUCLEAR FISSION
Following the discovery of neutrons in 1932 due to the English physicist James
Chadwick many new types of artificial nuclear transformations have been
investigated. Neutrons are the ideal projectiles for nuclear bombardment because they
have no electrical charge and thus suffer no repulsion in their approach to atomic
nuclei.
In some cases the impact of a neutron may result in the ejection of a proton or an
a-particle, as in the reactions:
7N
M
7N
l4
+
0n
1
-> 6 C , 4 +
1 H'
+ 0 n'-> 5 B"+ 2 H 4
In some cases the incident neutron can eject another neutron without being
captured itself:
C l 4 + n'-^C" + 2 n 1
6
О
О
О
whereas in other cases the incident neutron can be captured by the nucleus with the
release of excess energy in the form ofay-quantum. The latter process, known as the
radiative capture of neutrons, is of particular importance for heavy nuclear targets,
since in this case the ejection of protons and a -particles is strongly hindered by the
"outgoing" potential barrier surrounding the nucleus. I fit were not for the radiative
capture ofthe neutron no heavier isotope of the bombarded clement would be formed.
Sometimes these isotopes are stable so that no further nuclear transformation takes
place:
r |6 + п'-^ я 0 17 + у
H
o
n
1
whereas in some other cases the radiative capture of a neutron leads to a (i -emission:
47 Ag'
w
+ o n'-> 47 Ag" u +
47 Ag
4
Y
°-> 48 Cd» + e-
which is necessary to re-establish the proper neutron-to-proton ratio.
In the year 1939, a German radio-chemist, Otto Hahn, with his coworker, Frits
Strassman, studied the effect of the neutron bombardment of uranium atoms,
expecting to observe the formation of uranium isotopes with atomic weights higher
than that of ordinary uranium, i.e., 238. To his great surprise Hahn found that the
sample of uranium bombarded by neutrons contained radioactive atoms of a much
lighter clement, barium. The mystery of this discovery was soon cleared up by two
German physicists, Lisc Meitner and Otto Frisch, who suggested that in Hahn and
Strassman's experiments the nuclei of U 218 were split by incident neutrons into two
nearly equal parts:
32
П238 + ni_4 Ba 144 +, ftKr94
о
56
36
Since the barium and krypton atoms produced in this process possessed excess
neutrons, as compared with ordinary stable atoms of the same atomic weight ( 60 Nd 144
and 40 Zr 94 ), these so-called fission products emitted negative electrons, makingthem
strongly radioactive. Frishand Meitner's interpretation of Hahn and Strassman's
experimental finding as the splitting ofthe uranium nucleus into two nearly equal
parts opened new vistas in the field of nuclear physics. Instead ofjust "chipping off'
small pieces ofthe bombarded nucleus, as was the case in all previous experiments,
here was a real breakup ofthe central body of the atom, the fission of a large droplet
of the nuclearfluid into two half-size droplets. Instead ofjust the few million electron volts of energy observed in previous experiments on artificial nucleartransformations,
uranium fission liberates 200 MeV per atom.
The detailed theoretical studies ofthe process of nuclear fission were carried out
by Niels Bohr and John Wheeler and published in the September 1939 issue of the
Physical Review. This was the first and last comprehensive article on the the ory of
nuclear fission that appeared as "open literature" before the "security curtain" was
drawn tight on that subject. According to Bohr and Wheeler, the fission of heavy
nuclei resulting from the impact of a neutron is a resolution of a conflict between the
opposing tendencies of nuclear (attractive) and Coulomb (repulsive) forces acting in
the atomic nucleus.
• Find English equivalents for the following Russian phrases.
46
не испытывают никакой отталкивающей силы; на две почти равных части;
вслед за открытием; загадка этого открытия была вскоре разре шена; как это
происходило во всех предыдущих экспериментах; может привести к; идеальные
частицы; радиационный захват; по сравн ению с обычными устойчивыми
атомами; испусканию протонов и альфа -частиц серьезно мешает; последний
процесс особенно важен; эти так называемые продукты деления; никакого
дальнейшего ядерного превращения не происходит; правильное отношение числа
нейтронов к числу протонов; избыточные нейтроны; избыточная энергия; налета ющий нейтрон
•
Read the passage again and answer the following questions.
1.
What problem is the text concerned with?
2.
Who is the discovery of neutron due to?
3.
Why are neutrons the ideal projecti les for nuclear bombardment?
4.
What may the impact of a neutron result in?
5.
What process is known as the radiative capture of neutrons?
6.
Why is this process of particular importance for heavy nuclcartargcts?
7.
What nuclear targets do you know?
8.
What were the investigators looking for while experimenting with heavy
nuclear targets?
9.
What heavy nucleartargets did Otto Hahnand Fritz Strassman bombard with
neutrons?
10. What did they expect to observe in the experiment?
11. What result did they really observe?
12. Could Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassman interpret the results of their experiment?
13. Who was the mystery of their discovery cleared up by?
14. What did Meitnerand Frisch suggest concerning Hahn's experiments?
15. What energy does uranium fission liberate in this artificial nuclear
transformation?
16. Who carried out detailed theoretical studies ofthe process of artificial nuclear
fission?
17. What is the fission of heavy nuclei according to Bohr and Wheeler?
•
Be prepared to say a few words about:
1. Characteristics of neutron and its discovery.
•
2. Different types of artificial nuclear transformations.
Choose the proper word to fill up the blanks in the sentences below.
(capture, incident, collisions, fission, releases, results in)
1. Particle ... take place at locations known as integration regions.
2. This nuclear fission ... large quantities of energy which finally takes the form
of heat energy.
3. Neutron absorption frequently ... the emission of secondary gamma rays.
4. In other cases the... neutron can be captured by the nucleus.
5. The spontaneous... of neutrons into positrons within 12 minutes through the
emission of an electron is an evidence that neutrons can be considered as an
electric modification of protons.
6. If it were not for the radiation ... of the neutron no heavier isotope ofthe
bombarded element would be formed.
•
Translate into English making use of according to.
1. Согласно молекулярной теории,
движении.
молекулы находятся
в
постоян ном
2. По утверждению автора, эта гипотезадовольно сомнительна.
3. Твердые тела классифицируются по их электрическим свойствам.
4. По словам докладчика, эти факты можно объяснить по -разному.
5. Что представляет собой деление тяжелых ядер, по утверждению Бора и
Уилера?
CLASS WORK
READING (10В)
•
Skim the passage as fast as you can and choose the answer that suits the following
questions best.
1. Why arc the two
processes?
fragments ineffective
in
producing fur ther
a) They do not carry enough energy.
b) They carry too high electric charges.
c) They carry no charge at all.
2. What process is responsible for nuclear energy liberation?
a) uranium fission.
47
fission
b) a secondary process accompanying nuclear fission.
c) breakup of a uranium nucleus.
FISSION NEUTRONS
In spite of the fact that each of the two fragments produced in the fission of a
uranium nucleus carries about 100 Mev of energy, these fragments are quite
ineffective in producing further fission processes; this is due to the fact that the
fission fragments carry a very high electric charge and are consequently strongly
repelled by the other uranium nuclei with which they may collide. *Thus, the
discovery of uranium fission would not contribute anything to the pr oblem of the
large-scale liberation of nuclear energy if it were not for a secondary process that was
found to accompany nuclear fission.
*It was discovered that apart from the two large fragments of the original
nucleus, there are always several extra neu trons emitted in the breakup. In the case of
U 235 the average number of "fission neutrons" formed is 2.5 per uranium nucleus.
*These fission neutrons formed in the breakup of one uranium nucleus may collide
with the surrounding uranium nuclei and produce m ore fission and still more fission
neutrons and if the conditions are favourable, the breeding (расширенное
воспроизводство) of fission neutrons goes crescendo as does the breeding of PL248 .
Thus we get a branching chain reaction (разветвленная цепная реакция) and in
practically no time all the nuclei of uranium in a given pile of this material break up
with the liberation of a tremendous amount of energy.
•
Read the passage again and translate the sentences marked with an asterisk.
•
Give a free translation of the following text.
В 1930 году немецкий физик Бете (Boethe) заметил, что бомбардировка
бериллия природными сс-частицами из полония вызывала весьма специфическое
излучение. Бете полагал, что это излучение было образовано у -квантами высоких
энергий, и только через два года Чадвик (Chadwick) доказал, что это излучение
было ни чем иным, как быстро дви жущимся пучком частиц, которые имеют ту же
массу, что и протоны, но не несут электрического заряда. Эти новые части цы
получили
имя
нейтроны. Нейтроны самопроизвольно (spontaneously)
распадаются на протоны в течение 12 минут с испус канием электрона. Общее
(collective) название для нейтронов и протонов — нуклон, нейтроны —
нейтральные нуклоны, тогда как протоны — нуклоны, несущие положительный
элементарный заряд. Не имея электрического заряда, нейтроны не подвержены
(are not subjected to) действию электрических отталкивающих сил при приближении к ядру и могут легко проникать (penetrate) в заряженные ядра.
Благодаря этому нейтроны являются идеальными бомбардиру ющими частицами.
HOMEWORK
(to be done in writing)
1. Translate into Russian.
1. Providing such states existed, they could be produced by electron -positron
collisions and could be detected by their characteristic decays.
2. Supposing an antinucleus were dressed with a cloud of positrons it would be
an atom of antimatter.
3. In case a potential were applied t o gas at low pressure, ionization ofthe
molecules would result.
4. Should the neutron flux increase, the flow of coolant would increase too.
5. Had separate pieces of p- and n-type material been placed in contact, the p -njunction would have been produced.
6. We would understand the operation of a transistor provided we became
familiar with the mechanism of charge transitions across a junction formed
between a piece of n-type semiconductor and a piece of p -type.
7.
Should the reaction proceed smoothly, the end product might increase.
8. If it were not for the radiative capture ofthe neutron no heavier isotope ofthe
bombarded element would be formed.
9. If the Moon were one half as massive as the Earth it would be two times as
far from the center of gravity as the Earth is, if it were one third as massive
as the Earth, it would be three times as far, and so on.
2. Translate into English.
1. Если бы мы проверили прибор, он бы не отказал.
2. Если бы не он, мы бы не обнаружили эту ошибку.
3. Если бы ее спросили об этом соединении, она не смогла бы рассказать о
его свойствах.
4. Если бы они знали природу этого возбуждения, они получили бы другие
результаты.
5. Если бы он был здесь, он бы сказал нам, куда поместить этот образец.
UNIT ELEVEN
GRAMMAR: GERUND
Forms of Gerund
Active
solving
Indefinite
48
Passive
being solved
Perfect
having solved
having been solved
His knowing physics well
To, что он знает физику хорошо,
did not surprise us.
нас не удивило.
Everybody knows of Roentgen's Всем известно, что Рентген onpe-having
determined the effect
делил действие Х-лучей. of X-rays.
• Sentences to be translated.
1. His working at this problem was known to us.
2. Their having obtained new data is very important.
3. Our having been asked to make such an experiment surprised him.
4. I heard of his having carried out that research.
5. They spoke of the results having been achieved.
6. Einstein's being awarded the Nobel prize in physics soon became widely
known.
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
due to, thanks to, because of; on account of; owing to — вследствие,
благодаря, из-за
84
due to thanksto
because of on
Copper has been used <
account of
> its great conductivity.
owing to
V+-ment = N develop + -ment =
development
Form nouns from the following verbs and translate them into Russian.
move, establish, agree, adjust, improve, excite, appoint
V+ -ive = A act
+ -ive = active
•
Think of verbs corresponding to the following adjectives and translate them into Russian.
creative, refractive, indicative, attractive, explosive, representative, expressive
READING ( 1 1 A)
•
Read the passage attentively and follow the first steps in the development of nuclear
physics. Get ready to talk about the facts, hypotheses and experimental observations in
the field.
FROM THE HISTORY OF MESONS AND HYPERONS
In the year 1932, a Japanese physicist, Hidekei Yukawa, suggested that the
nuclear forces acting between protons and neutrons should be due to the presence of a
new type of particle that serves as a "nuclear glue" holding the atomic nuclei
together. According to Yukawa's theoreti cal consideration, the new particles must
have a mass intermediate between that of protons and that of electrons, so they
received the name mesons (from the Greek mesons meaning "between").
Five years after the introduction of these purely hypothetical par ticles for the
explanation of nuclear forces, they were actually observed in cosmic rays by an
American physicist, Carl Anderson. The so -called "primary cosmic rays" bombarding
the atmosphere of our planet are formed by streams of extremely high -energy protons
and a few other heavier positively charged nuclei that are probably accelerated by
electromagnetic fields in interstellar space. The energies of these primary cosmic
particles range from comparatively low values to thousands of billions of electron volts. Colliding with the nuclei of atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen at the outer
fringes of the atmosphere, these primary cosmic ray particles produce various kinds
of penetrating radiations, including high -energy y-quanta and streams of negative and
positive electrons; in fact, positive electrons were first discovered in cosmic rays.
Observing the tracks formed by cosmic ray particles in a vertical cloud chamber
placed between the poles of a strong magnet, Anderson noticed that the trajectories of
some of the particles, both positively and negatively charged, were bent by a
magnetic field more than would be expected in the case of fast protons but
considerably less than should be the case with electrons. From the observed magnetic
deflection, Anderson estimated that this new kind of particle is about 200 times
heavier than an electron, in agreement with Yukawa's theoretical prediction. These
particles were first called "heavy electrons", but the name was later changed to
"mesons".
Later studies have shown that there are actually two kinds of mesons, heavier
ones called п-mesons or pions, and lighter ones known as u -mesons. Both pions and
muons can carry either a positive or negative electric charge (п + , л - , u. + , u.), and in
addition there also exist neutral pions (n°). All of these new particles, as well as the
positive and negative cosmic ray electrons (e + , e ) are genetically related to each
other and form a sequence somewhat similar to the sequence of the radioactive
elements. It is now established that the pr imary high-energy protons entering the
outer fringes of the atmosphere give rise to neutral and charged pions. Neutral pions
possess a very short lifetime (about 10"" sec) and, in spite of their high velocity,
break up into two y-quanta:
n°-* y + y 1
before reaching the surface ofthe earth. The charged pions (both positive and
negative) live somewhat longer (10 8 sec) but still most of them break up high in the
atmosphere according to the equation:
я*-* u* + neutrino
Accordingly, for the study of pions and their decay into muons photographic
equipment attached to large balloons must be sent high into the stratosphere.
The mean lifetime of muons is comparatively long (10 6 sec), and many of them
reach the surface of the earth and permit themselves to be photog raphed in ordinary
cloud chambers. Since cloud chamber equipment is too bulky and heavy to be sent up
in balloons, cosmic ray researchers have developed a new method for photographing
the tracks of cosmic particles at high altitudes. Instead of using the i onizing
properties of fast charged particles passing through humid air, the new method is
based on the fact that these particles affect the grains through which they pass when
they travel through a finegrained photographic emulsion. When the photographic
plate is developed it shows dark streaks that correspond to the trajectories followed
by particles. A very rare photograph of this kind showing the formation of a pion
resulting from the collision of a primary cosmic ray particle with a composite nucleus
and the subsequent decay of this pion into a muon and an electron is shown in the
figure below.
Apart from mesons, which have a mass intermediate between those of an electron
and a proton recent studies of cosmic rays have discovered particles that are h eavier
than protons and are known under the collective name hyperons. The study of these
particles and of their interrelation with each other was, for a time, the most
interesting and most important field of exploration in physics.
• Find equivalents for the following phrases.
ядерные силы, вероятно, обуславливаются наличием; в соответ ствии с
теоретическими предположениями; протоны чрезвычайно высоких энергий;
межзвездное пространство; энергии колеблются от сравнительно низких величин
до; проникающее излучение; и положительно и отрицательно заряженные;
приблизительно в 100 раз тяжелее; в соответствии с теоретическим
предположением; либо положительный, либо отрицательный электрический
заряд; кроме того, существуют нейтральные пионы; а также электроны; ря д,
несколько похожий на; несмотря на их высокую скорость; среднее время жизни;
слишком громоздкое; набольших высотах; вместо использования; воз действует
на зерна; когда фотопластинку проявляют; помимо мезо нов, соответствующих
траекториям, по которым след уют частицы; пион, образующийся в результате
столкновения
• Re-read the passage and supply answers to the questions.
1.
What problem does the passage deal with?
2.
What assumption did a Japanese physicist, Hidekei Yukawa, make in 1932?
3.
What did Yukawa try to explain?
4.
What did he assume concerning the mass of these hypothetical particles?
5.
Who observed these particles experimentally?
6.
Where did Carl Andersen observe mesons?
7.
What instruments did physicists use then for observing primary cosmic ray
particles?
8.
Why were mesons first called "heavy electrons"?
9.
How many kinds of mesons were discovered later?
10. What is the difference between n- and u.-mesons?
11. How many types of я-mesons are there?
12. What two particles does n° break up into before reaching the surface of the
earth?
13. What is the lifetime of a neutral pion?
14. What particles does the breakup of л° give rise to?
15. Why does i f practically never reach the surface of the earth while many ofthe
muons reach the surface of the earth?
50
16. Why is cloud chamber equipment difficult to be sent up in balloons?
17. What new method has been developed by physicists for detecting tracks of
cosmic particles at high altitudes?
18. What fact is the photographic emulsion method based on?
•
Match the synonyms from both columns.
II
mean, altitude, to affect, to estimate, usual, to result in, regardless of,
alike, to arise from, height, besides,
to range, actually, in addition,
in fact, average, to evaluate, to
similar, to give rise to, in spite of,
influence, to vary
ordinary, to result from
to cause, to result in, to give rise to, to bring about — привести к ... to be caused, to
result from, to be due to, to arise from — являться результатом ...
• Translate into Russian paying attention to the words in bold type.
1. The errors may have resulted from lack of accuracy in the measurements.
2. Neutron absorption frequently results in the emission of secondary gamma
rays.
3. The disintegration ofthe radiative elements gives rise to three types of
radiation.
4. The black spots on the surface might be due to long exposure.
5. The compound nucleus formation will bring about elastic scattering.
6. The mistake has been caused by lack of operator knowledge.
Remember!
определительное существительное
(какой?) <— (какой?) «- (что?) сущ.
сущ.
+
+
сущ.
При переводе такой группы слов следует прежде всего начинать пе ревод с
последнего существительного (определяемого). Все остальные существительные,
стоящие перед ним, его определяют.
•
gam ma-ray sensitivity
— чувствительность по гамма лучам
energy-charge relation
- зависимость заряда от энергии
Translate the following word combinations.
electron rest-mass, phase shift analysis, electron velocity dist ribution, pulse series
generator
•
Translate into English using both ... and, either... or, neither ... nor.
1. И теория, и практика показывают, что новый метод лучше.
2. Ни он, ни другие ученые не сумели установить это соотношение.
3. Эту книгу можно найти или в библиотеке, или в читальном зале.
4. Отклонение рентгеновских лучей наблюдалось как в магнитном, так и в
электрическом поле.
5. Ни я, ни мой друг не смогли решить это уравнение.
CLASSWORK
READING (1 IB)
• Skim the passage rapidly and explain (he title.
THE MYSTERIOUS NEUTRINO
The early studies of radioactive (3 -decay (the emission of an electron by an
unstable atomic nucleus) led to the conclusion that there is something wrong with the
energy balance involved. While the (x-particles emitted by a given radioac tive
element always carry a well-defined amount of energy characteristic of that particular
clement, (3-particles show a wide energy spread (разброс) ranging from almost zero
to rather high energy values. Since the total energy liberation in the transformation of
one atomic nucleus into another is expected to be the same for all nuclei of a given
kind, it was suspected that there would be anoth er particle coming out ofthe nucleus
along with the electron that carries the missing (недостающий) balance of energy.
This hypothetical particle, which must be electrically neutral and must have a mass
that is much smaller than even the mass of an electro n, received the name neutrino
which means "little neutral" in Italian.
The absence of electric charge and the extremely small mass allow neutrinos to
penetrate thick material layers with the greatest of ease; a thick concrete (бетонная)
wall is just as ineffective in stopping a beam of neutrinos as a chicken wire fence
(проволочная изгородь) is in stopping a swarm (рой) of mosquitos. The neutrinos
that are produced in great quantities near the center of the sun in the process of
nuclear energy production pi erce its entire body and fly away as if there were nothing
there at all. It has been estimated theoretically that in order to stop effectively a beam
of neutrinos we would need a shield several light -years thick.
In spite of the almost incredible ability o f neutrinos to make their "getaway"
(выход) physicists managed in 1955 to stop a few of them, thus finding
51
unquestionable proof of their existence. F. Reines and C. Cowen of the Los Alamos
Scientific Laboratory used forthis purpose the collision process between neutrinos and
the nuclei of hydrogen atoms (protons) in which the neutrino was expected to produce
a positron and to transform the proton into a neutron:
я + neutrino^ n + e +
These two scientists built a giant particle counter that registered neutrinos as well
as positrons and placed it near one of the nuclear piles. The nuclear reactions taking
place in the operating pile produce a tremendous number of neutrinos that stream out
through a heavy shielding which holds back all other nuclear radiations. Although the
chance of a neutrino hitting a proton and producing the above-mentioned reaction is
only 1 out of 10 3u , some of these reactions do actually take place, resulting in the
simultaneous appearance of a neutron and the accompanying positron. Thus, the
uncatchable neutrino was finall y caught and joined the company of well-established
elementary particles.
•
Re-read the passage and give answers to the following questions.
1. What made scientists search for a hypothetical particle neutrino?
2. Why do physicists say of a neutrino that it is n ext to nothing?
3. What experimental procedure did scientists stage to detect neutrinos?
4. Why docs a heavy shielding of a reactor hold back all other nuclear particles
but neutrinos?
•
Give a free translation of the following passage.
Интерес к космическим лучам сверхвысоких энергий объединяет
представителей двух наук — астрофизики и физики элементарных частиц. Дело
втом, что, с одной стороны, источниками этого излучения могут быть такие пока
недостаточно познанные астрономические объек ты, как пульсары, оболочки
сверхновых звезд, черные дыры, активные ядра галактики и квазары, и потому
информация, приносимая космическим излучением, очень важна для физики
космоса. С другой стороны, это излучение состоит из частиц самых больших из
известных нам энергий, в тысячи и миллионы раз превосходящих те, которые
достигнуты на созданных человеком ускорителях. Вот почему изучение таких
частиц имеет важнейшее значение и для физики высоких энергий. В целом же
можно сказать, что исследование космических л учей — это своего рода глубокая
разведка (reconnaissance) в «горячих точках» науки.
HOMEWORK
(to be done in writing)
1. Translate into Russian.
1. The substance under investigation should be examined both by chemical and
physical means.
2. They should have used some other metal for the conductor, for this one offers
too high resistance to current.
3. You should have used a specially designed computer.
52
4. An operator of a computing machine should have an engineering background.
5. The density of the medium would change with temperature no matter what
measures they took.
6. There were electron tube devices in our laboratories but now they are replaced
by semiconductor ones.
7. It would be desirable that all necessary calculations be made before the
experiment starts.
2. Translate into English.
1. Огромное количество энергии высвобождалось бы в этом случае.
2. Вам следовало бы провести всесторонний анализ этого процесса.
3. Мы хотели определить это отношение, но никак не могли.
4. Мы узнали, что нейтроны не будут испытывать отталкивания пр и
приближении к ядрам атомов.
5. Падающий нейтрон был бы захвачен ядром.
6. Вам следует знать, что растепление ядра урана на две почти равные части
открыло новые перспективы в области ядерной физики.
UNIT TWELVE
GRAMMAR: GERUND
Adverbial Modifier
In measuring the current they used that device. Измеряя (при
in
on, upon, after
by
измерении) силу(ы) тока, они использовали этот прибор.
On measuring the current they put down the results.
Измерив (после измерения) силу(ы) тока, они записали
результаты.
They achieved good results by experimenting.
Они получили хорошие результаты путем экспери-
ментирования (экспериментируя).
without
Не left the room without saying a word. Он ушел
из комнаты, не сказав ни слова.
• Phrases to be completed.
1. In solving the problem...
2. On comparing those phenomena...
3. In processing the data ...
4. Upon calculating the mass ...
5. By diluting the solution ...
6. Without increasing the speed ...
9
3
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
• Study the meanings of due, be due to and due to.
due (to) adj. — соответствующий, надлежащий, вызванный,
обусловленный be due to
— бытьобусловленным,
являться следствием;
быть разработанным, предложенным due to
prep. — благодаря, из-за, вследствии
(syn. because of, on account of, owing to, in view of, thanks
to, by/in virtue of, consequent on)
• Now translate these sentences.
1,. Due consideration must be given to missile performance requirements.
2. No difference due to n-p scattering in the target was found.
3. Coincidences arise due to second-order effects.
4. A due explanation ofthe phenomenon of radioactivity was first given by the
Curies.
5. This phenomenon was found to be due to the lowering of the temperature
down to -200 °C.
6. An up-to-date apparatus, due to Frankenburg, isshown in Fig. 10.
READING (12A)
• Study the schematic representation of the passage given below, then read the passage and
be prepared to summarize the problem using this diagram.
inactive
(\Jm)
T
critical size ( 10 cm)
I
i
chai
active (U 235 ) i
fission
—»
neutrons
(carbon/graphite)
fissile —> materials
demonstration
of scientific
ideas
^results
efficiency
production of
heavier isotopes
I
FERMI-PILE AND PLUTONIUM
A good tourist is supposed to be able to build a campfire even ifthe wood is
soaking wet. This role of a good hiking tourist in the nuclear energy project was
played by the Italian-American physicist, Enrico Fermi, who actually made the "wet"
uranium logs "burn'VHe was able to do so by utilizing the fact mentioned above, that
the effectiveness of fission neutrons in producing the fission of U 235 nuclei increases
quite considerably wjicjalhcy are slowed down. llsucfTilowing~fTown of fission
neutrons could be achieved, the presence of inactive U 238 would not make much
difference. t To slow down the original fission neutrons it was necessary to mix natural
uranium with a large amountof carbon in theform of graphite. A large "pile" of
graphite bricks with small pieces of natural uranium included in the structure was
constructed in great secrecy under the grandstand ofthe University of Chicago
Stadium, and on December 2, 1941, Professor A. Compton wired to Dr. Vannevar
Bush in Washington, D.C.: "The Italian navigator has landed. The natives are
friendly." In the secret language ofthe Manhatta n Project this meant: "The Fermi -pile
works successfully. Nuclear chain reaction is achieved."
In the Fermi-pile, the fission chain reaction could be maintained in natural
uranium, buTThe naturajuranium was so highly diluted by carbon thi aTRigh
efficiency in energy production could not be achieved. Owing to the presence of
inactive U 238 , the chain reaction in the pile could not possibly develop into an
efficient explosion, nor could it be very useful as a power source.
So what good was the Fermi-pile, except for demonstrating the purely scientific
principle of the possibility of a self -maintaining nuclear reaction? Of course, the
demonstration of a purely scientific principle is always of very great importance, but
the Fermi-pile was built at great expense in the midst of a perilous war when all
expenditures were supposed to be judged on the basis of their military usefulness.
The Fermi-pile stood this acid test. Although the energy released in the fission of
U 235 nuclei could not be utilized and was literally sent down the drain by means of the
water-cooling system, a new fissionable element was produced inside the pile during
operation. The neutrons that were not used in the maintenance ofthe chain reaction in
U 235 nuclei were captured by U 23 8 nuclei, producing the heavier isotope:
92 U
238
+ o n'->, 2 U 23 ' + Y
Having an excess of neutrons, the nuclei of 92 U 239 underwent two successive Ptransformations, giving rise to elements with atomic numbers 93 and 94. These two
elements, which do not exist in nature but have been produced artificially by human
genius, were given the names neptunium and plutonium. The reactions following the
neutron capture by U 238 can be written:
54
92 U»
8
^ 0 ,Np 2 - w + c-
Being chemically different from uranium, the plutonium produced in the Fermi pile can be separated and purified with much less effort than i t takes to separate a
light uranium isotope from the heavy one, and this element turned out to be even
more fissionable than U 235 . In fact, whereas U 2 ' 5 gives rise to 2.5 fission neutrons, the
corresponding figure for Pu 239 is 2.9 fission neutrons.
Critical Size
When a single fission process occurs inside a given sample of pure U 235 or Pu 239 ,
several fission neutrons are ejected from the point where the nuclear breakup took
place. The average distance a fission neutron must travel through the material in
order to run into another nucleus is about 10 cm so that if the size ofthe sample in
question is less than that, most of the fission neutrons will cross the surface of the
sample and fly away before they have a chance to cause another fission and produce
more neutrons. Thus, no progressive chain reaction can develop if the sample of
fissionable material is too small. Going to larger and larger samples, we find that
more fission neutrons produced in the interior have a chance to produce another
fission by colliding with a nucleus before they escape through the surface, and for
samples of a very large size only a small fraction of the neutrons produced in them
has a chance to reach the surface before collidi ng with one of the nuclei. The size
ofthe sample of a given fissionable material for which the percentage of neutrons
giving rise to subsequent fission processes is high enough to secure a progressive
reaction is known as the critical size for that particular material. Since the number of
neutrons per fission is larger in the case of plutonium than in the case of uranium 235, the critical size of plutonium samples is smaller than that of uranium -235
samples because the former can afford larger losses of neutrons through its surface.
• Find English equivalents for the following Russian phrases.
не имело бы большого значения; зажечь костер, даже если дерево насквозь
пропиталось водой; самоподдерживающаяся цепная реакция; выдержал суровое
испытание; из-за наличия неактивного U 23S ; за исключением демонстрации чисто
научного принципа; претерпели пос ледовательные преобразования; приводя к
образованию элементов; за ставил гореть ценой огромных расходов; буквально
была спущена в дренажную трубу; ценой гораздо меньших усилий, чем
требуется для...; может позволить большие потери
• Read the passage carefully again and supply answers to the following questions.
1. What scientific discoveries led to the idea ofthe first chain reaction?
2. When and where was the first atomic pile constructed?
3. What fissile material was used in it?
4. What conditions should be met for the chain reaction to be achieved?
5. Could the Fermi-pile be useful as a power source? Why not?
6. What two scientific ideas did the Fermi -pile demonstrate?
•
Give a summary of the passage using the scheme on p. 94.
•
Choose the correct form to fit into each sentence.
(collisions, collide, colliding)
1. Quite frequently the two types of atom will.... The energy given up by the
electron injumpingtoa lower state goes into creating an additional photon
with the same characteristics as the ... photon. For samples of a very large
size only a small fraction of the neutrons produced in them has a chance to
reach the surface before... with one of the nuclei. There are two kinds of...
between the electrons and the atoms.
(the question, in question, question)
2. The substance ... contains traces of this element. One might ... these results.
Ifthe size of the sample ... is less than 10 cm, most ofthe fission neutrons will
cross the surface and flyaway.... arises of how accurately these da ta present
the results obtained.
•
Translate the following word combinations.
original fission neutrons, nuclear chain reaction, single fission process, vertical
cloud chamber, cosmic ray particle, wide energy spread, total energy liberation, thick
material layer, critical size level, nuclear power production, ordinary steam turbine
•
Translate into Russian, observe the use of "theformer, the latter".
1. There are two different methods to count scintillations: in the former the
microscope is used, in the latter, the Geiger-counter.
2. There are two ways to detect and measure radioactivity. The former is the
gold-leaf electroscope, the latter, the Wilson cloud chamber.
3. Only two types of rays are deflected in the magnetic field: the former to the
left, the latter to the right.
CLASSWORK
55
READING (12B)
• Skim the passage as fast as possible and find answers to the following questions.
1. What is the main problem in maintaininga steady chain reaction?
2. What are "control rods" used for?
3. What is the design of a "swimming pool" reactor?
4. For what purposes are nuclear power reactors used?
NUCLEAR REACTORS
A sample of fissionable material smaller than the "critical size" is unable to carry
on a nuclear chain reaction. If the size of the sample is exactly critical, the number of
neutrons produced in each generation is the same as that produced in the previous
one, resulting in steady nuclear energy liberation. The original Fermi-pile and its
later modifications maintain nuclear reactions at the critical size level. *It must be
mentioned in this connection that the conditions of "criticality" are extremely
unstable: a small deviation (отклонение) in one direction will result in the rapid
extinction (уменьшение количества нейтронов) of fission neutrons and the cut-off of
the nuclear chain reaction, whereas a deviation in another direction will lead to a
rapid multiplication ofthe fission neutrons and the melting (плавление) of the entire
structure. Thus, the important problem in maintaining a steady chain reaction is that
of regulating the rate of neutron production and of keeping the chain reaction from
"dying out" or "running away". *This is achieved by using "controlrods" made from
neutron-absording materials (such as boron) which arc automatically pushed in or
pulled out from narrow channels drilled through the reacting fissionable material as
soon as the rate of neutron production drops below or exceeds the desired level.
We have already mentioned that Fermi-piles were unsuitable for purposes of
nuclear power production because ofthe high dilution of uranium by carbon; they
should be considered rather as "alchemicalplants" in which plutonium is produced.
For the purpose of nuclear power production, we use the controlled nuclearehain
reactions in pure fissionable materials, such as U 235 or Pu 234 , which can be run at
quite high temperatures. In the so-called "swimming pool" reactor (реактор
бассейнового типа) in which several cylindrical containers filled with pure
fissionable material arc placed at the bottom of a large water tank, the water
circulating through the tank carries away the heat produced in the fission process and
also protects the observer from the deadly nuclear radiation. The color of the water
turns blue as a result of the so -called Cherenkoffs radiation produced in water by
high-energy electrons.
•
Explain how you understand the italicized words and phrases in the text.
•
Give an adequate translation of the sentences marked with an asterisk.
•
Give a summary of the passage in English or in Russian.
•
Give a free translation of the text.
У каждого элемента есть радиоактивные изотопы, которые либо существуют
в природе, либо возбуждаются искусственно бомбарди ровкой устойчивых ядер
такими частицами, как протоны, альфа -частицы или нейтроны. Частица, однако,
не будет поглощаться ядром мишени, если ее скорость не будет соответствовать
(correspond with) одному из энергетических уровней (level) ядра. Тяжелые ядра,
имеющие больше энергетических уровней, чем легкие, осуществляют зах ват
частицы с большей вероятностью, и этот факт помогает объяснит ь значение
урана, тория и других очень тяжелых атомов в ядерном ис следовании.
Так как нейтрон не заряжен, на него не влияют заряженные элект роны и
протоны, и поэтому более вероятно, что он, а не другая части ца, будет захвачен.
В случае захвата нейтрона массовое число ядра увеличится и ядро станет
неустойчивым и радиоактивным. По мере того как излучение продолжается,
уровень радиоактивности уменьшается экспоненциально, и время, которое
требуется для того, чтобы он дос тиг половины своей первоначальной (и сходной)
величины, известно как период полураспада изотопа (half-life).
HOMEWORK
(to be done in writing)
1. Translate into Russian.
1. The predicted accuracy was found to be difficult to obtain in practice.
2. Light was assumed to leave a source as an indefini te number of particles
travelling in straight lines.
3. Collisions between electrons and neutral molecules in solids appear to be
frequent.
4. The moon appears to be a particularly good gravitational antenna.
5. The new lasers were expected to work in principle at least at a very high
efficiency in comparison with other lasers.
56
6. An intense beam of light is observed to emerge from the mirror ends of the
crystal: the entire process is called light amplification by stimulated emission
of radiation (hence the acronym "laser").
7. Solid-state lasers already exist and although they have not had the spectral
purity of gas lasers, this situation seems to be changing.
8. At first the concept of charge density in an atom seems to bear little
resemblance to Bohr's picture of an elect ron orbiting the nucleus, but the two
views are closely related.
2. Translate into English.
1. Считают, что эти величины находятся в хорошем согласии с экс периментальными величинами.
2. По-видимому, высота остается одной и той же в течение всего периода
времени.
3. Не наблюдалось,
свойствами.
чтобы
4. Оказывается, лазеры
мышленности.
эти
широко
вещества
обладали
используются
в
радиационными
медицине
и
в
про-
5. Маловероятно, чтобы он решил это уравнение.
6. Известно, что на движение электронов влияют эти столкнове ния.
7. Известно, что радиоактивность была случайно открыта в 1896году
французским физиком Беккерелем.
UNIT THIRTEEN
GRAMMAR: GERUND
• Sentences to be translated.
1. The possibility of water being converted into ice is evident.
2. The teacher objected to our measuring this volume in advance.
3. There were other ways of applying high voltage.
4. The group couldn't help visiting the exhibition again.
5. The paper is worth(while) reading due to its importance.
6. The programmer worked very hard with the view to making the program
intelligible.
7. Besides putting forward a new theory he succeeded in proving it
experimentally.
8. Various methods of cooling transformers are used in practice.
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
according to prep. (syn. in accord with, in accordance with) — согласно, в соответствии с
account/?.
— описание, отчет; учет, принятие во внимание take into account
(syn. take into consideration) — учитывать, принимать во внимание
give account of — объяснять, описать, охарактеризовать
take account of — учитывать
of no account — не имеющий значения
onaccountof — из-за, вследствие, на основании, по случаю
on no account — ни в коем случае
on this account — но этой причине, из-за, ввиду этого
to account for — объяснять, быть причиной, относить за счет
1
0
1
1. The earth's atmosphere exerts a pressure on account of its weight in the same
way as liquids do.
2. Einstein's theory of light was put forward to account for the photoelectric
effect.
3. The energy losses in a gaseous source arc to be taken into account.
4. This phenomenon is accounted for by the sudden rise of temperature.
5. Electromagnetic theory can give a satisfactory account ofthe transmission of
light in transparent media.
6. No account was taken of relativistic electrons.
READING (13A)
• Read the passage carefully and explain the phenomenon of "phase change". Say why this
phenomenon is of interest to physicists.
THE WORLD IS MADE OF SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
According to contemporary physicists, the world is made of several types of
objects, collectively referred to as subatomic particles. (These particles can also be
thought of as manifestations of something yet more fundame ntal, known as quantum
fields.) There may be as many as I О 89 identical copies of some of these particles in
the present universe. The forms of matter familiar to us, both living and nonliving, on
the earth and in the heavens, are all composed of various combinations of only three
types of subatomic particles — protons, neutrons, and electrons. Dozens of other
types of particles can be produced momentarily in the laboratory, however, and arc
thought to have existed in large numbers in the early universe.
All subatomic particles are defined by a few qualities that they may possess, such
as mass, spin, and electric charge. Two particles arc of the same type, if all of these
qualities agree. Otherwise, they arc considered to be different particles. Particles of
the same type are, as far as we know, truly identical in these properties of mass, spin,
and charge rather than just very similar. If all photons, the particles that make up
light, were not identical, lasers would not operate.
The subatomic particles readily convert into one another when they collide. The
kinetic energy of motion of light particles can be converted into the energy associated
with mass (rest energy) of heavy particles. In many cases, even isolated particles can
convert spontaneously into others, if the latter are less massive. In all such
transformations, only a few properties, such as the total electric charge, remain
unchanged. The subatomic particles do not act like the changeless building blocks
imagined by some Greek philosophers. In the last few years, physicists have realized
that even those subatomic particles which exist have changed radically over the
lifetime ofthe universe. It appears that evolution takes place on all levels of matter,
not just on the more complex levels of living things. The driving force behind this
evolution is the expansion ofthe universe, which by changing the environment in
which particles are found, changes the particles themselves. Only twenty years ago,
the idea that the properties of subatomic particles might depend on their environment
would have been considered heresy. Nevertheless, there is now considerable
theoretical support for this conclusion.
Under the conditions in which physicists usually observe subatomic particles,
their defining properties are not perceived to vary, giving these properties an illusio n
of stability. However, under the immense temperatures and densities that prevailed in
the early stages of the universe, the properties, such as mass, of some particles would
have been very different from what they are now. This situation is related by na ture to
the variability of a liquid such as water. Under a fairly wide range of temperatures
water remains liquid and its properties do not change much whatever the temperature
within this range. But if the water is subjected to much lower temperatures, or is
heated to above 100° Celsius, its properties change abruptly. The liquid becomes a
solid (ice) ora gas (water vapour). This type of change, in which the properties of a
substance change drastically as a result of a small variation in its environmental
conditions, is called a "phase change" by physicists.
The presumed change in the properties of subatomic particles at very high
temperatures is also considered to be a phase change, one that involves the properties
of space, as well as ofthe particles in it . In other words, the particles do not react
directly to a temperature change but to some alteration in space, (he medium, in which
they find themselves.
It is easy to boil or freeze water, but very difficult to duplicate in the lab the
extreme conditions present at the birth ofthe universe. Yet physicists have become
convinced of the theory that atomic particles, and space itself, went through
momentous phase changes during and after the Big Bang. The rapid cooling that
followed that primordial explosion i s thought to have generated several phase
changes. After an incredibly short time (perhaps a microsecond), the subatomic stuff
of the young universe became stabilized, combining into the particles that make up
matter today.
• Look through the passage carefully and find English equivalents for the following Russian
phrases.
известные под общим названием; действительно (истинно); иден тичные, а не
просто схожие; фазовые превращения; энергия покоя; рассматривалась бы как
ересь; огромные температуры; невероятно ко роткий период; субатомный
материал
• For each word in A find in В its equivalent having roughly the same meaning.
A. 1. abrupt; 2. immense; 3. rapid; 4. incredible; 5. drastic; 6. to prevail;
7. to presume; 8. to perceive
58
B. a) quick; b) unlimited, immeasurable; c) very powerful; d) improbable,
impossible to believe; e) sudden and surprising; 0 to understand (see or
notice); g) to be most common or general; h) to suppose to be true
without proof
•
Fill in the blanks with information taken from the text.
1. The world is made up of 10 s4 ... .
2. These subatomic particles have ch aracteristic properties of..., and ....
3. These particles can be converted into one another while ....
4. Dozens of other types of particles can be produced only ....
5. Scientists believe that other types of particles existed ....
6. Under ordinary conditions subatomic particles are considered to be ... .
7. Under immense temperatures and densities ofthe Big Bang they might have
undergone....
8. The Big Bang process might have lasted only ....
•
Read the passage again and find answers to the following questions.
1. What do contemporary physicists know for certain about matter?
2. What do physicists assume concerning the other types of subatomic particles?
3. Why do physicists insist on the identity ofthe particles?
4. What should happen ifthe particles were not identical?
5. What phenomenon do the physicists call "phase change"?
6. What examples of phase changes could you give?
7. Could subatomic particles experience phase changes?
8. Under what conditions could they have experienced phase changes?
•
Think and say a few words about:
a) Big Bang and subatomic world;
b) the matter makeup;
c) phase changes in everyday life and in subatomic world;
d) laboratory experimentation with subatomic particles.
59
CLASS WORK
READING (13B)
• The problem of the passage below is illustrated in a block-scheme. Look at it and say what
you know about the problem. Then, read the passage and find the facts to prove or
disprove your ideas.
The Universe
atoms
matter
------ >field
< -----
--- )
photons/neutrinos
nuclei
4
proton/neutron
quarks/gluons
electrons
PARTICLES AND FIELDS
The number of the particles of each type in the pres ent universe is the result of a
complicated history. Most ofthe particle types that were abundant in the early
universe have long ago disappeared. We only observe them when they are produced
briefly in laboratories, and then annihilate or decay. Because of this we are uncertain
of how many particle types may exist.
In the present universe, quarks and electrons have properties that allow them to
form the tightly bound clusters that we call nuclei and atoms. Photons and neutrinos
cannot do this, and so exist much more diffusely throughout the universe.
Nevertheless, most of the universe we know is made of quarks and electrons, and
the present picture we have of the world is largely an expression of the properties of
these particles. Of the two, quarks have a g reater tendency to cluster together.
Indeed, this tendency is so pronounced that most physicists believe that quarks are
never found in isolation, but only in combinations containing either three quarks or
one quark and one antiquark. These are the combina tions that make up most of the
subatomic particles that we observe, such as protons and neutrons, the particles found
in the nuclei of atoms.
The reasons why quarks insist on clustering in this way are not completely
understood. There is a general theory, known as quantum chromodynamics (QCD)
that attempts to describe how quarks behave. QCD involves the interactions of fields
associated with quarks and fields associated with another type of particle called
gluons (so named because they bind the quarks toget her). Most physicists believe that
when the predictions of this theory are better understood, we will know why quarks
cluster as they do.
Ever since the first microsecond after the origin of the universe, quarks have
been bound together, in groups of three, into neutrons or protons. All of the other
combinations of quarks or the other quark types, which also can bind together, are
unstable under present conditions. That is, if they are produced, they change
spontaneously into less massive particles, and eve ntually into some combination of
the stable ones. Even neutrons are unstable when they are found in isolation — as
when they arc produced in nuclear reactors — and decay into protons in a few
minutes. The reason that neutrons exist at all in the present un iverse is that when
given the chance they bind together into more complex and lasting objects. Neutrons
can bind with protons into atomic nuclei, and with one another in immense numbers
into neutron stars.
Electrons also bind with nuclei and with each othe r into the combinations that we
know as atoms and molecules. This binding occurs through electric and magnetic
forces, which are manifestations of the same quantum field whose particle aspect is
the photon. The detailed properties of this field arc summar ized in a theory known as
quantum electrodynamics (QED), the most widely tested theory in quantum physics.
No inaccuracies have been found in the theory, down to a level of error of less than
one part in a billion.
Most physicists believe, on the basis of theoretical arguments, that even protons
and bound neutrons are not really stable, and that over sufficiently long periods of
time they decay into electrons or neutrinos. Such decays have not yet been observed,
although experimental searches are underway. The time period over which this is
thought to occur is 10 31 years or more, so that few of the protons and neutrons
produced in the early universe would have decayed yet in this way. However, by
looking at matter containing thousands of tons of protons, a f ew proton decays should
be seen in a year. According to this theory, ifthe universe continues to expand for
another 10 31 years or more, matter as we know it will have disappeared. The era in
which the universe is dominated by the matter familiar to us will be very long by
human and by galactic standards, but it may still be just an instant in the whole
history ofthe universe.
• Look through the passage and find English equivalents for the following Russian phrases.
современная вселенная; во всей вселенной; сложная история; из-за этого;
плотно связанные; выражение свойств; тенденция столь ярко выражена;
зарождение (возникновение) вселенной; они спонтанно превращаются в...; через
достаточно долгий период времени; экспериментальные исследования ведутся;
всеголишь мгновение; стремятся сгруппироваться
60
•
Fill in the blanks with information from the text or from any other source.
1. The matter of the universe is made up of... .
2. The general theory describing the behaviour of quarks is ....
3. The QCD involves the interaction of... and ....
4. Protons and neutrons arc made up of... .
5. The subatorhic particles existing in the universe diffusely are ... and ... .
6. Neutrons can bind with one another into ....
7. QED involves the binding of... and ... into ....
8. The subatomic particles never found in isolation arc ....
•
Choose the facts from the list below which you could consider as well-established by
science. Give reasons for your choice.
1. The number of distinct particle types in nature.
2. Photonsand neutrinos cannot cluster.
3. Most matter of the universe is made up of quarks and electrons.
4. Electron is indivisible.
5. Quarks cannot be found in isolation.
6. Neutrons are unstable.
7. Protons are unstable.
8. Neutrons can bind with one another.
9. Quarks can bind with one another.
•
Think and say a few words about:
a) distinct particle types known in nature;
b) the nature of quarks;
c) QCD and QED theories;
d) protons and neutrons, their present and future.
HOMEWORK
(to be done in writing)
1. Translate into Russian.
The Properties of Space
How is it possible for space to change, if space is conceived of as nothing at all?
Actually, physicists no longer think of space in that way. Einstein, in his general
theory of relativity, following up on the work ofthe nineteenth -century
mathematicians Bernhard Riemann and William Clifford, asserted that the properties
of any region of space depend considerably on the presence and form of matter
nearby. For example, the space near the sun is distorted in its geometrical properties;
it "curves" because ofthe star's great mass. A triangle drawn by intersecting light rays
near the sun would not obey the rules of Euclidean geometry, its angles would not add
up to 180 degrees. It is this distortion of space and a related change in the way time
passes that earlier physicists identified as the force of gravity, and which in Einstein's
theory leads to the motion of the planets in orbits around the sun.
2. Translate into English. Use the Gerund forms.
1.
Стоит обсудить проблему субатомных частиц подробно.
2.
Мы не можем не попытаться дать определение этим понятиям.
3.
Не стоит повторять эти измерения без высокочувствительною прибора.
4.
Нельзя не признать ценность этих исследований.
5.
Не имеет смысла (не стоит) перечислять все достоинства этой работы.
6.
Стоит учесть все недостатки этой работы.
61
Part IV.
MODERN DISCOVERIES, THEORIES AND
TECHNOLOGIES
UNIT FOURTEEN
GRAMMAR: МЕСТОИМЕНИЕ ONE
Модальные глаголы must, have, should, ought, may, can, might теряют ciioи
оттенки значений и переводятся практически одинаково. Место имение one не
переводится.
One must
One can
i
One has to
следует, нужно,
One may
One should
необходимо
One might
One ought
•
можно
можно было бы
One could
Complete the sentences.
1. One must remember that...
2. One has to assume that...
3. One should emphasize that...
4. One ought to bear in mind that...
5. One can see that...
6. One may note that...
7. One might expect that...
8. If it were so, one could conclude that ...
•
Translate the following sentences. Pay special attention to: • one as
the subject of a sentence.
Model 1: One could expect the value to change.
Можно было бы ожидать, что эта величина изменится.
1. One could think that this is an attractive problem.
2. One should understand, however, that the problem is extremely difficult.
3.
One often wonders how he could avoid these difficulties.
4.
One should remember, however, that they are unavoidable.
5.
One must think of another approach to solving the problem.
• one as a substitute for a previously mentioned noun.
Model 2: Have you developed any procedures? We need an effective one.
Вы разработали какие-то процедуры? Нам нужна эффективная
(процедура).
1.
We can advise you several procedures, but this is the most reliable one.
2. The old methods of investigation are regarded as inadequate ones.
3. The newly developed technique has certain advantages over the old ones.
4. Could you name any problems as fundamental ones?
5. 1 could name the role of the DNA in genetics as the most challenging one.
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
gain п. - усиление, коэффициент усиления v. - получать
1. The experience gained enabled the planning of vast expansion.
2. The loop gain is so much reduced that the high -frequency oscillation is
unable to start.
3. The amplifiergain can be increased by the feedback method.
READING (14A)
• Read the passage attentively and be prepared to discuss its plot according to the following
outline:
1. The phenomenon of superconductivity.
2. The conditions of superconductivity.
3. Possible practical uses of superconductivity.
SUPERCONDUCTORS
The Startling Breakthrough That Could Change Our World
That discovery, most scientists believe, could lead to i ncredible savings in
energy: trains that speed across the countryside at hundreds of miles per hour on a
cushion of magnetism, practical electric cars, powerful yet smaller computers and
particle accelerators, safer reactors operating on nuclear fusion rat her than fission
and a host of other rewards still undreamed of.
Superconductivity is aptly named. It involves a remarkable transition that occurs
in many metals when they arc cooled to temperatures within several degrees of
absolute zero, or, as scientist s prefer to designate it, 0 Kelvin. Absolute zero
equivalent to —460°F or -273°C, represents a total absence of heat; it is the coldest
temperature conceivable. As the metals approach this frigid limit, they suddenly lose
all their electrical resistance an d become superconductors. This enables them to carry
currents without the loss of any energy and in some cases to generate immensely
powerful magnetic fields. Scientists have recognized for years that the implications
of this phenomenon could be enormous, but one stubborn obstacle has stood in their
way: reaching and maintaining the temperatures necessary for superconductivity in
these metals is difficult and in most instances prohibitively expensive.
From the time that a Dutch physicist Kamerlingh Onnes di scovered
superconductivity in 1911 until the recent rush of breakthroughs, there was only one
way to produce the phenomenon: by bathing the appropriate metals — and later,
certain metallic alloys — in liquid helium.
This exotic substance is produced by low ering the temperature of rare and costly
helium gas to 4.2K (—452°F), at which point it liquefies. But the process is
expensive and requires considerable energy. Furthermore, unless the liquid helium is
tightly sealed in a heavily insulated container it qu ickly warms and vaporises away.
Thus, the practical use of superconductors has been limited to a few devices — an
experimental Japanese magnetically levitated train, a few giant particle accelerators
and medicine's magneticresonancc imaging machines that o perate with intense
magnetic fields.
But in the last few years physicists have stumbled on unusual cases of ceramic
compounds that change everything. They also must be cooled to become
superconductors but only to a temperature of 98 К (—283°F) and that suddenly
brings superconductivity into the range ofthe practical: liquid helium can be replaced
as a coolant by liquid nitrogen, which makes the transition from a gas at the easily
produced temperature of 77 К (—320°F). Moreover, liquid nitrogen is cheaper th an
milk and so longlasting that scientists carry it around in ordinary thermos bottles.
Also, the ceramics may be able to generate even more intense magnetic fields than
metallic superconductors.
Thus, if these new substances can be turned into practical d evices — and most
scientists believe they can — technology will be transformed.
• For each word in column 1 find its synonymous phrase or word in column 11.
Model: (in most) instances — in
most cases
I
II
heavily (insulated) tightly
that can be imagined
(sealed) immensely (powerful
not easy to control or deal with
fields) prohibitively
exclusively, forbiddingly
(expensive) startling
uncommon; of unusual quality
(breakthrough) incredible
intensely cold
(savings) remarkable
impossible to be believed
(transitions) (the coldest)
surprising
conceivable
not leaky
(temperature) frigid (limit)
stubborn (obstacle)
severely
immeasurably
• Match each word in column I with its antonymous phrase or word in column II.
I
•
II
exotic
cheap
rare
very common
expensive
easy to control or deal with
safe
dangerous
stubborn
usual or colourless
Look through the passage and fill in the blanks with the proper information.
1. The coldest conceivable temperature equals ... and is called ....
2. Absolute zero represents a total absence of... .
3. When some metals are cooled to absolute zero they lose ... and become
4. In the past, reaching and maintaining absolute zero temperatures was
prohibitively ... because the process required ....
5. With the discovery of... superconductivity has become alm ost practical.
6. As a coolant liquid helium can be replaced by ... .
7. If the technology of superconductors is improved, they could be turned into
practical devices such as....
•
Look through the passage and answer the following questions.
1. What is superconductivity?
2.
How old is the discovery of superconductivity?
3.
What conditions enable some metals to become superconducting?
63
4. How can these conditions be provided?
5. Why has superconductivity not become widely used in practice?
6. What laterdevelopmcnts have brought sup erconductivity into the range of
practical use?
7. What properties make liquid nitrogen more attractive as a coolant than liquid
helium?
8. What fields of superconductor application could you name?
CLASS WORK
READING (14B)
• Skim the passage carefully (3 min), define the main idea of the passage and give a headline
to it.
In terms of the social impact superconductivity could well be the breakthrough of
the 1980s in the sense that the transistor was the break through ofthe 1950s. Indeed,
scientists hardly know where to start in describing the bonanza that superconductors
could yield.
Take the transmission of electricity, for example. As much as 20% ofthe energy
sent through high-tension lines is now lost in the form of heat generated as the
current encounters resistance in the copper wire. If the electricity could be sent
through superconducting cable, however, not a kilowatt -second of energy would be
lost, thus saving the utilities, and presumably consumers, billions of dollars.
Furthermore, at least in theory, all of a large city's electrical energy needs could be
supplied through a handful of underground cables.
Elimination of heat caused by electrical resistance could have ^profound effect on
the design and performance of computers. In their efforts to produc e smaller and
faster computers, designers try to cram more and more circuits into chips and ever
more chips into a tiny space. But they are limited in their scaling down endeavors by
heat: even the tiny currents in computer circuits generate enough cumulative heat to
damage components if they are too tightly packed. Today's personal computers could
not operate without vents or internal fans to dissipate the heat. Now, with practical
superconducting circuitry on the horizon, computer designers may soon see the way
clear for even more remarkable miniturization.
In still othcrapplications, the intense magnetic fields that might some day be
generated by the new superconductors should benefit any device that now uses
electromagnctism in its operation — medical diagnostic imaging machines,
magnetically levitated trains, fusion-energy generators — and will undoubtedely
spawn a host of new machines. Electric motors could increase in power and shrink in
size.
•
Explain how YOU understand the italicized words in the passage.
•
Look through the passage again and choose all potential Fields of superconductor
applications in practice.
•
Think and say a few words about the problem as a whole.
HOMEWORK
(to be done in writing)
1. Translate into Russian.
High-temperature Superconductors
The new HTSCs arc mixed oxides that display the mechanical and physical
properties of ceramics. A key to the behaviour of the new ..- 'crials appears to be the
presence of planes containing copper (Cu) and • gen (O) atoms, chemically bonded to
each other. The special nature of the copper-oxygen chemical bonding gives rise to
materials that conduct electricity well in some directions in contrast to the majority
of ceramics whic'i are electrically insulating.
The first class of high T ( .' oxides discovered was based on the chemical alteration
ofthe insulating ternary compound La 2 Cu0 4 by replacement of a small fraction ofthe
element lanthanum (La) with the alkaline earths barium (Ba), strontium (Sr) or
calcium (Ca). This substitution led to compounds with T c s of up to 40 K. In these
materials, an intimate relation between superconductivity and magnetic order is
presently under intensive study and has inspired one of the many classes of theories
that attempt to explain HT Superconductivity.
2. Translate into English.
1. Значительный прогресс в понимании физической
проводимости наступил (come) в 1940-х годах.
основы
сверх -
2. Он связан с работами хорошо известных советских ученых П.Л. Ка пицы
и Л .Д. Ландау.
3. Они
разработали
макроскопическую
теорию
сверхтекучести
(superfluidity) жидкого гелия, которая возникает при температу рах около
абсолютного нуля.
4. Они написали большое количество научных статей по
водимости и промежуточным (intermediate) состояниям
проводниках при низких температурах.
Tt.s — critical temperatures
64
сверхпро в сверх-
UNIT FIFTEEN
GRAMMAR: REVISION
• Provide answers to the following questions. Use the words in brackets. Follow the model.
Model: What problems do they discuss? (A highly important...)
A highly important problem has just been discussed by them.
1. What scientific problem do they deal with? (An
extremely interesting ...)
2. What ideas do they put forward? (A highly vital...)
3. What new hypothesis does the scientist advance? (A highly specific...)
4. What new information do our economists consider? (Highly vita/...)
5. What new methods do the researchers develop? (Extremely complicated ...)
6. What new devices do the scientists invent? (Extremely sophisticated...)
• Translate into English using the Passive Voice. Follow the model.
Model: Многие насущные (pressing) задачи нашего времени решаются в этом
институте.
Many ofthe pressing problems of our days are solved at this college.
В нашем институте постоянно решаются жизненно важные (vital) проблемы.
Выдвигаются интересные гипотезы. Рассматриваются раз личные пути
исследования.
Конструируются
высокочувствительные
(highly sensitive)
приборы. Развиваются новые методы исследования. Изобретаются жизненно
необходимые материалы.
11
5
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
followv. — следовать за; следовать чему-то, придерживаться чего-то
followed by — за которым следует
as follows — следующим образом
be as follows — заключаться в следующем
it follows that — из этого следует, что; следовательно
in what follows — ниже, в дальнейшем (syn. in the following)
following adj. — следующий
prp. — следуя, вслед за, после; согласно, в соответствии с in the
following way — следующим образом (syn. in such a manner, in this fashion, in
this way)
•
Sentences to be translated.
1. These substances can be classified as follows.
2. The procedure to be followed in the experiment is as follows.
3. It follows that where the velocity is higher, the pressure is lower.
4. That discovery followed by great research work of many scientists was a very
significant scientific event.
5. The procedure will be followed throughout the book.
READING (15A)
•
Read the passage carefully and find facts to prove or disprove the idea that scientists are
close to comprehensive understanding of the superconductivity mechanism.
STATUS OF THEORETICAL UNDERSTANDING
While scientists know the chemical composition of the new class of
superconductors, they are less certain about how they work. True, a theory exists that
explains low-temperature superconductivity. It is known as BCS from the initials
ofthe authors John Bardeen and his colleagu es Leon Cooper and Robert Schrieffer,
who shared the 1972 Nobel Prize for physics for their effort.
In the microscopic theory of Bardccn -Coopcr-Schrieffer, the presence of a net
attractive interaction between conduction electrons, which would normally repe l each
other because of their like electrical charges, is essential to the occurance of
superconductivity. 1 n conventional superconductors this attraction originates in the
dynamical motion ofthe crystal lattice which leads to unattractive "electron -photonelectron" interaction. But the recent appearance of superconductivity in a class of
matcrialsquite different from the conventional superconductors, and with extremely
high transition temperatures as well, has led physicists to explore a very wide
spectrum of possible new pairing mechanisms involving, for example, spin
fluctuations, acoustic plasmons and excitonic processes.
The principle origin ofthe pairing "glue" remains an open and to some extent
crucial question. There is a wide range of theoretical p ossibilities, and the ultimate
explanation may involve a combination of mechanisms. Indeed, some theorists have
discarded conventional BCS-theory and have suggested that there may not even be the
traditional close relationship between energy gaps and basic superconducting
properties. It may take a considerable effort to fully unravel the secrets of these
compounds. Typical ofthe questions currently underactive consideration are the role
played by oxygen, the nature and scope of dynamical mechanisms and resu lting
electron pairing, whether this coupling is weak or strong, and whether the anisotropic
nature of the materials is a truly important feature. The appearance of
superconducting coherence lengths one or two orders of magnitude smaller than those
previously encountered, the very low carrier concentrations, and the apparent
importance of both copper and oxygen will probably require a considerable extension
of our current understanding of superconductivity. The fact that the superconducting
interaction mechanism in the new materials is likely to be very different certainly
enhances the prospect that other high -tempcrature superconducting materials (HTSC)
may be discovered.
•
Look through the passage again and find English equivalents for the following Russian
phrases.
химический состав; менее уверены; суммарное взаимодействие при тяжения;
сходные
заряды;
существенно
важнодля
возникновения;
при тяжение
зарождается; механизм образования пар; вопрос остается от крытым и до
некоторой степени критическим; окончательное объяснение; "развенчали"
общепринятую теорию; энергетические зоны; пол ностью раскрыть секреты;
усиливать перспективу того, что ...; значительное расширение нашего
современного представления
•
Answer the following questions.
1. Do you know the names of great scientists working in the field of
superconductivity?
2. What theories have been put forward to explain the mechanism of
superconductivity?
3. How has the situation changed since the time when the authors of the BCS theory shared the 1972 Nobel Prize?
4. Has the understanding of the superconductivity mechanisms become clearer?
66
5. What is the mechanism of superconductivity according to the con ventional
BCS-theory?
6. What factors are not clear to scientists in modern class superconductors?
7. What do they mean by modern-class superconductors?
• Think and say a few words about:
1. the history of the superconductivity as a branch of physics.
2. the theoretical status of the branch.
3. recent developments in the branch.
4. the importance of the branch for humans.
CLASSWORK
RE AD I N G (1 5 B )
• Skim the passage (4 min), explain the title and answer the questions posed in the
text.
SUPERCONDUCTIVITY KEEPS
SCIENTISTS ON THE BOIL
In 1986, two researchers at IBM in Zurich, Switzerland, made what seemed a
momentous discovery. An unusual kind of "pottery" (керамика) made from oxides of
lanthanum, strontium and copper could conduct electricity without resistance at 30
degrees above absolute zero. In other words, the ceramic material was
superconducting at 30 K. This temperature does not sound very high, but until then,
physicists had seen superconductivity at temperatures only below 24 K. In fact, most
physicists thought that superconductivity could not exist above 35 K.
So, the two researchers, Georg Bednorz and Alex Miiller, were working i n afield
in which most people had given up hope of finding anything exciting. They even had
to disguise their work from their supervisor in order to be able to do it. After Bednorz
and Miiller announced their results, researchers around the world quickly c onfirmed
the discovery. Within a few months, Paul Chu and his associates at the universities of
Texas and Alabama found a new class of ceramics, made from oxides of yttrium,
barium, copper and oxygen oxides, that became superconducting at an even higher
temperature, 93 K. And that is when the excitement really began. It looked as though
materials that were superconducting at room temperature were just around the corner,
and the door was about to open on a golden era of physics, chemistry and technology.
The programme forthe 1987 meeting of the American Physical Society in New
York City had gone to bed in December before the discovery was widely known, so it
contained nothing about high -temperature superconductivity. But the organisers ofthe
meeting obligingly arranged for a special evening session on the topic just in case
anyone had anything to contribute. Four thousand people attended. The session began
at seven o'clock in the evening and finally broke up at six o'clock the following
morning. The front page story of The New York Times called it the "Woodstock for
physicists".
The press heralded the high-temperature superconductors as the greatest discovery
since the invention ofthe transistor. Pundits postulated that the materials would have
far-reaching applications in power transmission, transport, energy storage and
electronics.
The economics of high-temperature superconductivity was set to change society.
Why? Because although the lower temperature superconductors were already being
used in specialized areas of science, they required liquid helium to keep them cool
enough to remain superconducting. Cooling helium gas to below its boiling point of 4
К was expensive. The new superconducting oxides required only liquid nitrogen,
which boils at 77 К to keep them working. It is much cheaper.
Researchers also hoped that they would soon discover materials that were
superconducting at room temperature. This would change the way we use energy and
also speed up communications. A new technology would alter many aspec ts of our
life.
Virtually every major university, electronic and chemical company started
research programs to examine the new compounds. Most technologically advanced
countries started national initiatives. No country wished to be left behind in the race
to exploit these new wonder materials.
So, what has happened in the past years since then? Will these new
superconducting materials fulfil their early promise?
Or has the euphoria of an unexpected and remarkable discovery clouded the
judgement of scientists, businessmen and politicians alike?
(New Scientist, London, 15 July 1989)
•
Explain how you understand the italicized words in the passage,
•
Answer the questions posed in the text.
• Match each word in column I with the one which means the opposite from column II.
II
attract,
occurrence,
different, enhance,
presence,
conduction,
extremely, ultimate, initial, the
same,
repel,
unimportant,
disappearance,
absence,
weaken, slightly, insulation
crucial
• Choose the proper word and complete the sentences.
1. John Bardeen and his collegues (shaped/shared/shifted) the 1972 Nobel Prize
for physics for their effort.
2. The presence of a net attractive interaction between conduction electrons is
essential to the (disappearance/occurrence) of superconductivity.
3. Some theorists have (accepted/discarded) conventional BCS-theory.
4. It may take a considerable effort to fully (unravel/conceal) the secrets of these
compounds.
5. The origin of the pairing "glue" remains an open and to some extent
(unimportant/crucial) question.
HOMEWORK
(to be done in writing)
1. Translate into Russian.
In 1987, each new report of achieving superconductivity at a higher temperature
was received with excitement by the physics community. By summer, claimed records
were approaching room temperatures, b ut enthusiasm was cooling. In December, signs
of superconductivity above the boiling point of water (373 K) were reported.
However, most observers were sceptical about this claim, reflecting growing doubts
that the existence of superconductivity above 100 К has been proved.
During the second half of the year, about 20 research groups reported evidence
for superconductivity above 100 K. However, at the Boston meeting, Paul Chu, the
researcher from the University of Houston, who made the first superconductor at 90
K, said higher-temperature observations were "unstable superconducting anomalies",
rather than convincing results. He stressed that reports of high -temperature
superconductivity should meet four criteria:
68
zero resistance; demonstration of the Mciss ner effect (the exclusion of magnetic
fields from a superconductor); stability; and reproducibility. Although he said that
there was "no clear evidence to exclude" the possibility of superconductivity well
above 100 K, Chu believes that the highest reported temperatures for
superconductivity which meet all four criteria are in the 90 to 100 К range.
2. Translate into English.
Высокотемпературная сверхпроводимость
Недавнее открытие (1986) сверхпроводимости при температурах до 95 К
является одним из наиболее важных научных событий после дующего
десятилетия. Вероятно, наиболее примечательной особен ностью этого открытия
является то, что оно было совершенно нео жиданным.
Сверхпроводимость была открыта голландским (Dutch) ученым Камерлингом
Оннесом (Kamerlingh Onnes) в 1911 году. Он обнаружил, что сопротивление
замороженной ртути внезапно исчезало при 4,2 К ( —269 градусов Цельсия), т.е.
при температуре, которую можно получить (accessible) только погружением
(immersion) в жидкий гелий. В 1913 году Оннес также обнаружил, что слабые
магнитные поля разрушали этот эффект, и металл возвращался к своему
обычному резистивному состоянию. Впоследствии было найдено, что другие
металлы, такие, как олово (tin) и свинец (lead) являются сверхпроводниками при
таких же низких температурах. Люди сразу же начали придумывать, как
применить сверхпроводники (to invent applications for...), например, для
уменьшения потерь на линиях электропередач (electric power systems).
UNIT SIXTEEN
GRAMMAR: THE COMPLEX OBJECT WITH
THE INFINITIVE
Subject +
Complex Object
Predicate
believe
expect
noun
consider
pronoun
a. Infinitive
with/o
(me, him.
assume,
etc.
her, it, you,
b. Infinitive
without to
us, them)
sec hear
observe
feel, etc.
a. We expect the investigation to be completed soon.
Мы ожидаем, что исследование будет скоро закончено.
b.
1 heard them discuss this problem.
Я слышал, что они
make
Mind: 1.
обсуждали этот вопрос.
noun
Inf. without to
+
— заставлять
cause J pronoun Inf. with/o This force
makes electrons move
causes
to move.
Эта сила заставляет электроны двигаться.
122
2. allow i
permit +
+ Infinitive - позволять,
J
давать возможность
enable Pronoun
This method enables
accurate calculations
to be made.
more
Этот метод дает возможность
более точные вычисления,
сделать
• Sentences to be translated.
1.
We know the research to have been completed.
2. It is rather difficult to make this machine run.
3. We know lasers to be employed in all branches of science and technology.
4. These simple ideas enabled Bohr to account forthe stability of hydrogen.
5. One might expect the structure of the world to be explained with a minimum
number of particles and forces.
For-phrase
for +
---------------pronoun
+
Infinitive
For the data to be received you Для того чтобы получить эту инare to carry out numerous
experiments.
формацию, вы должны провести
многочисленные опыты.
• Sentences to be completed.
1.
Forthe fission process to be investigated the scientists ...
2.
For a thermonuclear reaction to take place the temperature...
3.
For the resolution to be improved they...
4.
For a lot of energy to be liberated, it is necessary ...
5.
Forthe compound to be purified we ...
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
A + -ty=N conductive + -ty =
conductivity
• Think of the adjectives corresponding to the following nouns and translate them into
Russian.
mobility, possibility, regularity,
majority, resistivity, impurity
activity,
continuity,
probability,
density,
READING (16A)
• Study the schematic representation of the passage given below, then read the passage and
be prepared to summarize the problem using this scheme.
conductors ------------------► metals -------- ► free electrons
i
Y
semiconductors ------------► silicon (Si)
I
i
(4-valencc)
nonconductive
/
insulators
^conductive
I
doped with impurities
n-type < ------- arsenic (As)
(5-valence)
boron (B)-------------- ► p-type
(3-valence)
|
(acceptor-type)
(donor-type) ---------- ► crystal rectifiers < ----------------- conduction
conduction
|
p-n-junction device
SEMICONDUCTORS
Some materials cannot be classified as either insulators orgood conductors as
thermal agitation ofthe atoms can knock loos*eonl/y a few electrons and permit tne
material Dc slightly conductive. Such materials arc known as semiconductors. A
small amount of the proper kind of impurity in the crystalline structure of a
semiconductor may, however, make it enormously more conductive. A pure silicon
crystal in which each atom of silicon has a chemical
valence 4, is connected with four of its neighbors by four electron bonds. This
situation arises when one atom of silicon is replaced by an atom of ar senic (As)
which has a valence of 5.
The impurities in the crystalline structure of a semiconductor make the
semiconductor very conductive.
Donor
Acceptor
The four valence electrons ofthe As atom form connections (bonds) with the four
neighboring Si atoms, while the fi fth "black sheep" electron is left unemployed and
free to travel from place to place. The impurity atoms that give rise to free electrons
in this way arc known as donors. A reverse situation! occurs when the Si atom is
replaced by a trivalent atom of boron (B). In this case there will be a vacant place, or
an electron hole, that breaks up the spotless regularity ofthe silicon crystal rattice.
The impurity atoms that give rise to such "holes" arc known as acceptors. A hole
formed near a foreign atom present in the lattice may be filled up by an electron
originally belonging to one of the neighboring silicon atoms, but in filling this hole
the electron will leave a hole at the place where it was originally located.
If this hole is filled by another neighboring electron, a new hole will move one
step farther out.
шi i
Шш
i i
4
m
m
-4
Щ
m
m
i
m m
§
Thus, we can visualize the hole of that type as an "object" that is moving through
the crystal, carrying a deficiency of negative charge, or, what is the same, a positive
electric charge. Semiconductors that contain donor atoms and free electrons are
known as n-type semiconductors, while those with acceptor atoms and holes are
called p-type semiconductors (n and p stand for a negative and positive charge o f
electric carriers). The electrical conductivity of n -type semiconductors is determined
by the number of free electrons per unit valence and the case with which they move
through the crystal lattice, while in the case of p -type semiconductors it depends on
the number and mobility of the holes.
Crystal Rectifiers
Suppose now that we put into contact two crystals: an n -type crystal containing
free electrons and a p-typc crystal containing electron holes. Some of the electrons
from the n-region will diffuse i nto the p-rcgion while some holes from this region
will diffuse into the n-rcgion. Thus the n-type crystal will become slightly positively
charged while the p-type crystal will carry an equal negative charge. Between these
opposite charges on both sides of the interface (known as an "n-p-junction") there
will be an electric force of attraction which will prevent further diffusion, and the
situation will be stabilized with a certain number of holes in the n -type crystal and an
equal number of electrons in th e p-type crystal. It must be remembered, however, that
when free electrons and electron holes exist side by side in a given material, they can
be mutually "annihilated" by a free electron filling a hole. In order to compensate for
the losses due to this annihilation process, a small number of electrons and holes will
continue to diffuse in opposite directions through the n -p-junction.
Let us sec what happens now if we apply an electric voitage at the two ends of
our crystal pair. If the positive pole of a b auery is connected with the p -type crystal
and the negative pole with the n -type crystal, there will be a force driving the holes
to the right and the electrons to the left, and an electric current will begin to flow
through the system. Since both crystals arc now being invaded by holes and electrons
crossing the border, the rate of mutual annihilation on both sides of the n -p-junction
will increase considerably, and more holes and electrons will have to be produced on
both sides. These new electrons for th e n-type crystal will be supplied by electrons
pouring through the wire from the negative pole of the battery, while new holes will
be produced by electrons leaving the p -typc crystal on their way to the positive pole
ofthe battery.
If, on the other hand, we reverse the direction ofthe electric potential the
situation will be quite different. Now thcjelectrons and the holes will be pulled in
opposite directions, leavinga"no-man's land" at the n-p-junction. It is clear that under
these conditions no current can flow through our double crystal. Thus wc see that our
device will conduct electric current in one direction but not in the opposite one. This
property of one-way electric conductivity of n -p-junctions permits us to use pairs of
n-type and p-t^pe crystals for rectifying alternating current instead of the more
complicated electronic tubes.
• Find English equivalents for the following Russian phrases.
тепловое движение атомов; может освободить несколько электро нов;
небольшое количество определенной при меси; для простоты; ос тается
незанятым; обратное происходит; нарушает безупречную пра вильность;
определяется той легкостью, с. которой они перемешаются; привести в
соприкосновение;
граница
раздела;
п -рлертход;
будет
препятствовать
72
дальнейшему рассеянию; приложить электрическое поле; оставляя никому не
ггринадлежащую
территорию;
однонаправленная
проводимость;
кристаллическая решетка
•
Read the passage carefully and supply answers for the following questions.
1. What materials can be classified as semiconduc tors?
2. Under what conditions can a semiconductor become more conductive?
3. What impurity atoms are known as donors/acceptors?
4. What is the difference between n -type and p-type semiconductors?
5. What isthcirconductivitydetcrmincdby?
6. What device is called a crystal rectifier?
7. What will happen on applying an electric voltage at the ends of a crystal pair?
8. What purpose can a crystal pair be applied for?
CLASSWORK
READING (I6B)
•
Read the passage in two minutes. Choose sentences supporting the ideas.
1. A transistor is a combination of crystals. What is the principle of its action?
2. Transistors have some advantages over triode tubes. What are these
advantages?
TRANSISTORS
We can use a combination of n - and p-type crystals to carry out the functions of a
triode tube. Such an arrangement is known as a transistor. It consists of a p -type
crystal placed between two n -type crystals. If wc apply to the middle and to the right
crystal an electric voltage from a battery no current will flow through the system.
Things will change, however, if a small electric voltage from the battery is applied to
the central and to the left crystal. In this case current will start to flow through the n p-junction on the left. However, many electrons entering into the p -type crystal will
continue across it and enter the n-type crystal on the right, thus permitting a current
from the battery to flow through the right n -p-junction. The situation is quite similar
to that existing in a triodc tube, and the crystal on the left plays the role ofthe
filament, while the middle crystal and the crystal on the right play the role of grid
and plate. The principal advantage of transistors over vacuum tubes lies in the fact
that the controlled flow of electrons takes place entirely within solid material. Thus it
is not necessary to use a large amount of power to keep a filament red -hot to eject
electrons into space. This, in addition to thcirsimplicity, reliability and small size, is
rapidly causing transistors to take the place of the old -fashioned vacuum tubes in
many fields of electronics.
• Give a free translation of the text.
Один из способов классификации твердых тел — это классификация их по их
электрическим свойствам. Во-первых, проводники и изолято ры различаются
своей электропроводностью. В частности, пр оводники имеют проводимость от
10 4 до 10 А ом 'см 1 , в то время как изоляторы характеризуются проводимостмми
менее чем 10" 6 ом"'см"'. Во-вторых, проводимость проводника уменьшается при
увеличении температуры, в то время как проводимость изолятора лишь слегка
изменяется с увеличением температуры.
Кроме проводников и изоляторов, существует класс твердых тел с
промежуточными значениями электропроводимости (10 6 до 10 3 ом" 'см -1 ),
проводимость которых увеличивается (сильнее, чем у изолято ров) с увеличением
температуры. Такие твердые тела, которые похожи на изоляторы только при
температурах около абсолютного нуля, на зываются полупроводниками. Одно
заметное (marked) различие между проводником и полупроводником связано со
степенью (degree) чистоты кристалла. Проводимость хорошего проводника
увеличивается при очистке, например при устранении (elimination) примесей из
кристалла, тогда как проводимость полупроводника при очистке обычно
уменьшается.
HOMEWORK
(to be done in writing)
1. Translate into Russian.
1. The magnetic field controls the movement of the particles making them travel
along a single track.
2. We know gravity to act on every particle of a body so that its weight is
actually distributed throughout the body.
73
3. It is possible, however, for the two electrons to occupy the same region if
they are an antiparallel pair.
4. Light striking one side of the photocathode causes photoelectron to be ejected
from the otherside into the vacuum.
5. Judging by this trend we can expect the laser to play an important role in the
communication systems ofthe future.
6. In solids molecules have fixed lattice sites but their thermal motion causes
them to vibrate around these equilibrium positions.
7. For such forces to be effective, matter must be compressed until it approaches
the density of matter within an atomic nucleus.
8. It is also possible for the annihilation of an electron -positron pair to give rise
to hadron.
2. Translate into English. Use the Complex Object and the for + Infinitive
phrase.
1. Мы знаем, что они использовали новый источник информации.
2. Я полагаю, что они проведут всесторонний анализ этого про цесса.
3. Для того чтобы это произошло, температура должна быть доста точно
высокой.
4. Мы заставили его решить это уравнение.
UNIT SEVENTEEN
GRAMMAR: T H E INFINITIVE
•
Translate the following sentences into Russian. Pay special attention to the
construction the Complex Subject with the Infinitive. Follow the model.
Model: A yawning ozone hole is reported to have been identified over the
Antarctic.
Сообщают, что нал Антарктикой обнаружена зияющая озон ная
дыра.
1. Atmospheric pollution is known to have been a pressing problem for each
industrialized country.
2. Harmful effects of pollution seem to have been in the news for a long
time.
3. They are expected to be in the news for a long time to come.
4. Articles on smoke and offensive gases released by local factories are said
to appear daily.
5. One more type of pollution proves to have appeared recently.
6. Ozone holes are assumed to be threatening the globe as a whole.
•
Agree with the speaker's idea. Use the Complex Subject with the Infinitive. Follow
the model.
Model: It is known that the ozone layer acts as a filter.
Yes, the ozone layer is known to act this way.
130
1.
It is supposed that the ozone layer is the thinnest over the Antarctic.
2.
It is assumed that the size of the hole is increasing.
3.
It is believed that the cause ofthe ozone hole is harmful chemicals.
4.
It is expected that the ozone layer thinning will cause an increase of harmful
radiations.
5.
It issuggested that harmful ultraviolet radiations maybe very dangerous.
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
• Pay attention to the prefixes. Guess the meaning of the following words:
trans- = across — transmit, transform, transduce, translate, transfer, transplant
mis- = wrong —misunderstand, miscalculate, mislead, mispronounce,
misbehave, misinform
со-
= together with — cooperate, coordinate, coincidence, coaxial, coworker
semi- = half — semiconductor, semicircle, semisphere, semifinal, semiofficial
READING (17A)
• Read the passage below and classify the symmetries described in it.
SYMMETRIES
Symmetries and apparent symmetries in the laws of nature have played a part in
the construction of physical theories since the time of Galileo and Newton. The most
familiar symmetries are spatial or geometric ones. In a snowflake, for example, the
presence of a symmetrical pattern can be detected at a glance. The symmetry can be
defined as an invariance in the pattern that is observed when some transformation is
applied to it. In the case ofthe snowflake the transformation is a rotation by 60
degrees, or one-sixth of a circle. If the initial position is noted and the snowflake is
then turned by 60 degrees (or by any integer multiple of 60 degrees), no change will
be perceived. The snowflake is invariant with respect to 60 -degree rotations.
According to the same principle a square is invariant with respect to 90 -degrce
rotations and a circle is said to have continuous symmetry because rotation by any
angle leaves it unchanged.
Although the concept of symmetry had its origin in geometry, it is general enough
to embrace invariance with respect to transformations ofother kinds. An example of a
nongeometric symmetry is the charge symmetry of electromagnetism. Suppose a
number of electrically charged particles have been set out in some definite
configuration and all the forces acting between pairs of particles have been measured.
If the polarity ofall the charges is then reversed, the forces remain unchanged.
Another symmetry ofthe nongeometric kind concerns isotopic spin, a property of
protons and ofthe many related particles called hadrons, which are the only particles
responsive to the strong force. The basis of the symmetry lies in the observation that
the proton and the neutron are remarkab ly similar particles. They differ in mass by
only about a tenth of a per cent, and except for their electric charge they arc identical
in all other properties. It therefore seems that all protons and neutrons could be
interchanged and the strong interactions would hardly be altered. If the
electromagnetic forces (which depend on electric charge) could somehow be turned
off, the isotopic-spin symmetry would be exact; in reality it is only approximate.
Although the proton and the neutron seem to be distinct p articles and it is hard to
imagine a state of matter intermediate between them, it turns out that symmetry with
respect to isotopic spin is a continuous symmetry, like the symmetry of a sphere
rather than like that of a snowflake.
All the symmetries wc discussed so far can be characterized as global symmetries;
in this context the word global means "happening everywhere at once". In the
description of isotopic-spin symmetry this constraint was made explicit: the internal
rotation that transforms protons int o neutrons and neutrons into protons is to be
carried out everywhere in the universe at the same time. In addition to global
symmetries, which arc almost always present in a physical theory, it is possible to
have a "local" symmetry, in which the conventio n can be decided independently at
every point in space and every moment in time. Although "local" may suggest
something of more modest scope than a global symmetry, in fact the requirement of
local symmetry places a far more stringent constraint on the con struction of a theory.
A global symmetry states that some law of physics remains invariant when the same
transformation is applied everywhere at once. For a local symmetry to be observed
the law of physics must retain its validity even when a different tra nsformation takes
place at each point in space and time.
•
Re-read the passage and find English equivalents for the following Russian terms.
симметрия
—
явная/пространственная/(не)геометрическая/в
мировом
масштабе/локальная/нспрерывная/сп ии -изотопная/зарядная
•
Look through the passage and find English equivalents for the following Russian phrases.
с первого взгляда; удивительно схожие частицы; вряд ли бы измени лись; повидимому, разные частицы; повсюду; одновременно; можно принять условие;
намного более сильное ограничение; сохранить свое значение
• Answer the following questions.
1. What is symmetry?
2. Why is the concept of symmetry important?
75
3. What symmetries are there in the world?
4. What arc the most familiar of them and why?
5. What symmetries are called local/global?
6. What examples of gcometrie/nongeometric symmetries could you give?
CLASSWORK
READING (17B)
• Read the article by Graham P. Collins from May 2001 and make an appropriate comment
on the discovery made. What does the author mean by the title? What dog and what trick
docs he mean?
NEW TRICK FROM OLD DOG
A Magnesium Compound Is a Startling Superconductor by Graham P.
Collins
You can buy magnesium boride ready-made from chemical suppliers as a black
powder. The compound has been known since 1950s and has typically been used as a
reagent in chemical reactions. But until this year (2001) no one knew that at 39
degrees above absolute zero it conducts electric current perfectly — it is a
superconductor. Although its superconducting temperature is far below that ofthe
copper oxide high-temperature superconductors, the compound has set off a flurry of
excited activity among researchers. Mag nesium boride overturned theorists'
expectations and promises technological applications.
Jun Akimitsu of Tokyo University anounced the surprising discovery at a
conference in Japan on January 10, after he and his workers stumbled on magnesium
boride's properties while trying to make more complicated materials involving
magnesium and boron.
Word ofthe discovery spread around the world by e-mail and in three weeks the
first research papers by othergroups were posted on the Internet.
In early March, a special session on magnesium boride was hastily put together in
Seattle at the American Physical Society's largest annual conference: from 8 p.m.
until long after midnight, nearly 80 researchers presented ultrabrief summaries on
their results.
Until January, standard wisdom ruled out the possibility of a conventional
Superconductor operating above about 30 kelvins. Conventional superconductors are
understood by the so-called BCS theory, formulated in 1957. The magnesium boride
result seemed to imply that either a new superconducting mechanism had been
discovered or that the BCS theory needed to be revised.
Almost all the experimental evidence so far supports the idea that magnesium
boride is a standard BCS superconductor, unlike the copper oxides. For example,
when researchers use the isotope boron 10 in place of boron 11, the material critical
temperature rises slightly, as expected, because the lighter isotope alters vibrations
ofthe material's lattice of atoms, a key component of BCS theory. How, then, has the
magic 30 kelvins been exceeded?
Perhaps, those predictions were premature. Magnesium boride has a combination
of low-mass atoms and favourable electron states, that was overlooked as a
possibility.
Physicists are trying to push the BCS' limit even further to produce higher critical
temperatures by doping the material with carefully selected impurities. Groups have
added aluminium or carbon (neighbours of boron in the periodic table), but these both
decrease the critical temperature. Calcium is expected to work better, but no one has
succeeded in producing calcium-doped magnesium boride.
Even undoped, magnesium boride ha s several attractive features for applications.
First, the higher operating temperature would allow cooling ofthe superconductor by
refrigeration instead of by expensive liquid helium, as is needed for the most widely
used superconductors.
The high-temperature copper oxide superconductors beat magnesium boride
hands-down on that count but they have proved difficult to manufacture into
convenient wires. Also, the supcrcurrent does not flow well across the boundaries of
microscopic grains in copper oxides.
Magnesium boride, in contrast, has already been fashioned into wires using
simple techniques, and the supercurrent flows effortlessly between grains. One
drawback, however, is that magnesium boride loses its super conductivity in relatively
weak magnetic fields, fields that are inescapable in applications. But with the
progress seen already in a scant few months, researchers are confident they can
overcome such problems.
HOMEWORK
(to be done in writing)
1. Translate into Russian. Pay special attention to the word one in different meanings.
1. We could offer you a number of challenging problems, but this one seems to be
the most attractive.
76
2. One should find a simple and elegant solution ofthe problem.
3. No one seems to have dealt with this problem yet.
4. One should mention the problem under investigation in our lab.
5. No one seems to have formulated this problem in precise terms.
6. This is one ofthe most confusing and puzzling problems we have ever dealt
with.
7. This problem seemstobc much more complicated than all the previous ones.
8. No one has yet presented it in all its complexity.
2. Translate into English.
Зеркальная (mirror/reflection) симметрия является первым случаем
геометрического понятия симметрии, относящейся к таким опера циям, как
отражение или вращение. Симметрия является той идеей, посредством которой
человек на протяжении веков пытался понять и создать порядок, красоту и
совершенство (perfection). Первые (early) ученые считали окружность на
плоскости и сферу в пространстве наиболее совершенными геометрическими
фигурами.
Что можно назвать математической философией левого и правого? Сточки
зрения научного мышления, между левым и правым не суще ствует полярной
противоположности. Пространство изучается геомет рией. Но пространство
также служит средой всех физических явлений. Структура физического мира
проявляется (reveal) во всеобщих законах природы. Во всей физике нет ничего,
что указывало бы на внутреннее различие между левым и правым. Левое и
правое эквивалентны так же, как все точки и все направления в пространстве.
UNIT EIGHTEEN
GRAMMAR: ГЛАГОЛ WOULD
Would Глагол обозначает волеизъявление, желание, склонность к выполнению
действия. Чаще употребляется в отрицательной форме, означая
упорное
нежелание
совершить
действие.
Относительно
неодушевленных предметов или явлений означает неспособность
предмета выполнитьдействие,для которого он предназначен, или
недостаточность условий для реализации явления.
We did everything to persuade him but he would not change (Никак) не
the procedure of his experiment.
Мыделали все, чтобы убедить его, ноон(никак) не хотел
изменить процедуру эксперимента.
Would not
Would
1) a) Future in the Past
He wrote he would return in a week. Он
писал, что вернется через неделю.
b) The Subjunctive Mood
It would be extremely interesting to attend this conference. Было бы
очень интересно присутствовать на этой конферен ция.
2) a) We tried to open the door but it wouldn't.
Мы пытались открыть дверь, но она никак не открывалась.
Ь) вежливая просьба
Would you give me your English textbook?
He дадите ли мне ваш учебник по английскому языку?
136
3) would = used to — бывало, обычно, имел обыкновение
Не would work (used to work) in his lab for ten hours.
Он имел обыкновение работать всвоей лаборатории по 10 часов.
Note: В научно-технической литературе would в этом значении на русский
язык не переводится.
Sometimes the device would fail.
Иногда прибор ломался.
• Sentences to be translated.
1. We asked them whether they would change the conditions of the experiment.
2. They tried to raise the temperature but it wouldn't.
3. The device was tested several times and it would always prove correct.
4. Were the surface of the material highly polished, the friction would be less.
5. There would be no progress in science without observations.
6. The density of the medium would change with temperature no matter what
measures they took.
7. There were electron tube devices in our laboratories but now they are
replaced by semiconductor ones.
8. It would be desirable that all necessary calculations be made before the
experiment starts.
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
anypron. — любой, всякий (утверд. предложение)
any kind — всякого рода
in any case (event) - в любом случае
any longer - больше не (syn. any more, no longer, no more)
hardly any — почти ничего
if any - если вообще (таковые имеются), если только
• Sentences to be translated.
1. If this is the case, it is difficult to measure any internal properties of the
plasma by any ofthe conventional methods.
2. One can obtain very poor, if any, data on this event.
3. Any of these approaches will hold.
4. Гп any event one should bear in mind that the information obtained may be
misleading as to the course ofthe reaction.
READING (18A)
• Read the passage below and find the answer for the following question:
Which symmetries, global or local, hold the greatest interest for physicists today
and why?
GAUGE THEORIES 1
An understanding of how the world is put together requires a theory of how the
elementary particles of matter interact with one another. Equrvalently. it requires a
theory of the basic forces-of nature. Four such forces have been identified, and until
recently a different kind of theory was needed for each of them. Two ofthe forces,
gravitation and elcctromagnetism, have an unlimited range; largely for this reason
they arc familiar to everyone. They can be felt directly as agencies that push or pull.
The remaining forces, which are called simply the weak force and the strongforce,
cannot be perceived directly because their influence extends only over a short range,
no larger than the radius of an atomic nucleus. The strong force binds together the
protons and the neutrons in the nucleus, and in another context it binds together the
particles called quarks that are thought to be the constituents of protons and
neutrons. The weak force is mainly responsible forthe decay of certain particles.
A long-standing ambition of physicists has been to construct a single master
theory that would incorporate all the known forces. One imagines that such a theory
would reveal some deep connection between t he various forces while accounting for
their apparent diversity. Such a unification has not yet been attained, but in recent
years some progress may have been made. The weak force and elcctromagnetism can
now be understood in the context of a single theory . Although the two forces remain
distinct, in the theory they become mathematically intertwined. What may ultimately
prove more important, all four forces are now described by means of theories that
have the same general form. Thus if physicists have yet t o find a single key that fits
all the known locks, at least all the needed keys can be cut from the same blank. The
theories in this single favored class are formally designated non -Abelian gauge
theories with local symmetry. What is meant by this forbiddi ng label is the main
topic of this article. For now, it will suffice to note that the theories relate the
properties ofthe forces to symmetries of nature.
Gauge theories — градиентные полевые теории, или калибровочные теории поля
•
Look through the passage and And English equivalents for the following Russian terms
and phrases:
78
как построен мир; до недавнего времени; не больше чем; в основ ном,
отвечая зд ...; единым ключ, который подходит ко всем замкам; достаточно
заметить; согласно тому же принципу; осн овные силы природы; слабые/сильные
взаимодействия
•
Answer some more questions about the passage.
1. What is a long-standing ambition of physicists?
2. What do scientists mean by a single master theory and why is it needed?
3. How many and what basic forces of na ture have been identified until
recently?
4. Which of these forces have a limited/an unlimited range?
5. Which of the basic forces are familiar/unfamiliar to everyone and why is it
so?
6. What are the strong/weak forces responsible for?
7. What progress has been made recently in developing a theory of the basic
forces of nature?
8. By means of what theories are the basic forces of nature described now?
•
Study the block-scheme below and try to discuss or summarize the problem as a whole.
Forces
weak
universal
1
local
gravitation
electromagnetism
strong
intertwined
radioactive beta decay
pull/push
proton/neutron binding
CLASS WORK
READING (18B)
• Study the table given below. Read the passage and be prepared to discuss the problem
using this table.
TYPE
STRONG NUCLEAR
FORCE
ELECTROMAGNETIC
FORCE
WEAK NUCLEAR FORCE
GRAVITATION
THE FORCES IN NATURE
INTENSITY OF
BINDING
OCCURS IN
FORCES
PARTICLE (Field
(Decreasing order) quantum)
~1
GLUONS (no
ATOMIC NUCLEUS
mass)
ATOMIC SHELL
PHOTON (no
- io-3
APPL1C.
mass)
OF ELECTRICITY
BOSONS Z°, W\ RADIOACTIVE BETA
~io-5
W(hcavy)
DECAY
GRAVITON?
H EAVEN LY
~io-38
BODIES
THE EXCHANGE OF PARTICLES IS RESPONSIBLE FORTHE FORCES
THE FOUR FORCES OF NATURE
One of the major achievements of modern physics has been the development over
the past 20 years or so of a new class of grand unified theories to describe the forces
acting between elementary particles.
There arc four different ways in which the various particles that make up the
Universe can interact with one another. Each of these is a particular variety of
interaction, or to use a more old -fashioned but more common term, a force (the forces
are nuclear, electromagnetic, weak, gravitational). Of the four forces, two — the
nuclear force and the weak force — make themselves felt only at incredibly tiny
distances of 10 13 centimeters or less. This is just about the width of the tiny nucleus
that exists at the very center of the atom. It is only within the nucleus, in the
immediate neighbourhood of isolated particles, that these forces exist. For this reason
the term nuclear force is sometimes given to both, and they are differentiated by their
relative strength into the strong nuclear force and the weak nuclear force. The weak
force is responsible for such processes as the beta decay of a radioactive atomic
nucleus; the strong nuclear force holds the nucleus together. The electromagnetic
force governs the interaction of electrically charged particles; and gravity holds the
Universe together.
Until the theories were introduced the four observable forces of nature seemed to
be independent of one another. Two of these forces, the elec tromagnetic force and the
weak nuclear force, arc already linked by the highly successful electrowcak theory,
which treats them as different manifestations of a single underlying force. Accord ing
79
to the prevailing view ofthe interactions of elementary particles, the force is
transmitted between two particles by the exchange of a third, intermediary particle.
Such a description is the essence of a quantum field theory. In elec tromagnetic
and weak interactions the exchanged particle is a member ofthe family called the
vector bosons, named after the Indian physicist S.N. Bose. This term refers to a
classification of particles according to one of their most basic properties: spin angular
momentum. A boson is a particle whose spin, when measured in fundamental units, is
an integer such asO, 1 or 2. "Vector" designates a boson whose spin value is equal to
1.
In the case ofelectromagnetism the exchanged vector boson is the photon, the
massless and chargeless "wave packet" of electromagnetic energy that functions as the
quantum ofthe electromagnetic field. The other two forces — gravity and st rong
nuclear force — are thought to be transmitted by intermediary particles, namely the
graviton and the eight particles called gluons.
The unified eleotroweak theory is the theory that predicts the existence of the
three massive particles called intermediate vector bosons (also known as weakens;
"intermediate" simply because of their mediating role between particl es). The
electroweak theory, which can now be considered the "standard" account of
electromagnetic and weak interactions, for the first time made specific and testable
predictions about the properties of intermediate vector bosons, including their mass.
The goal of attempts to create a grand unified theory is to arrive at a more
comprehensive mathematical structure that would incorporate both the electroweak
force and the strong nuclear force (omitting only gravity, the fourth known force).
Scientific American, August, 1982
•
Find equivalents for the following phrases.
лают о себе знать; различные проявления одной, лежащей в их осно ве силы; в
соответствии с общепринятым мнением; целое число; обыч ное объяснение
электромагнитных...; слабое взаимодействие; с ильное взаимодействие; теория
великого объединения; ...в непосредственной бл изости...
•
Re-read the passage and answer the questions.
1. What is one of the major achievements of modern physics over the past 20
years?
2. Where do the nuclear force and the weak force make themselves felt?
3. What does the term "nuclear force" imply?
4. What is the weak force responsible for?
5. What is the strong force responsible for?
6. What forces are linked by means of the electroweak theory?
7. What is the exchange particle in the electrow eak force?
8. How many bosons does the unified electroweak theory predict?
9. What is the goal of creating a grand unified theory?
• Match each word in column I with its synonym in column II.
I
apparent, to attain, to come about, to
designate, familiar, decay, with respect
to, ultimately, explicit, to reveal
• Choose the proper word.
II
definite, to name, to show, as regards,
finally, evident, to achieve, to happen,
disintegration, well-known
1. The strong force (separates/binds together/breaks) the protons and the
neutrons in the nucleus.
2. The gauge theory will (designate/reveal/relate) some deep connection between
the various forces.
3. In the theory the two forces become mathematically (unified/defined/
intertwined).
4. The theories in this single favored class are formally (designed/
designated/defined) non-Abelian gauge theories with local symmetry.
5. For a local symmetry to be observed this law of physics must retain its (
value/valence/validity).
6. It is hard to imagine a state of matter (immediate/intermediate/internal)
between the proton and the neutron.
HOMEWORK
(to be done in writing)
1. Translate into Russian.
Pull of Gravity Reveals Unseen Galaxy Cluster
Now astronomers are taking long strides into the realm (область) of dark matter.
The scientists of Bell Labs in Murray Hill, New Jersey have discovered a whole new
cluster of galaxies and calculated its distance without relying on
80
its emitted light. Instead they inferred the unseen cluster's existence from th e way its
gravity rerouted light from more distant galaxies beyond. The research team is one
ofscveral to show that the technique, known as gravitational lensing, can be used to
map matter in deep space.
Astronomers believe that about 90% of mass in the universe is dark. Telescopes
can't see it, but its gravitational pull blows its cover. "Gravity doesn't care whether
matter is dark or luminous," scientists say. All you need are background sources of
light, which arc all over the sky, and, in principle, you can find all the matter
between us and the background sources.
Science (17 August 2001)
2. Translate into English.
1. Желательно, чтобы прибор проверили до эксперимента.
2. Если бы ты присутствовал на лекции вчера, ты бы понял новый матсри&т
лучше.
3. Мне бы хотелось, чтобы ты информировал нас о работе каждую неделю.
4. Без атмосферы не было бы жизни.
5. Научный руководитель настаивает, чтобы мы представили рабо ту через
неделю.
6. Без электроники и кибернетики мы не могли бы решить многие важные
проблемы.
UNIT NINETEEN
GRAMMAR: THE ABSOLUTE PARTICIPIAL
CONSTRUCTION
• Sentences to be translated.
1. An electron leaving the surface, the metal becomes positively charged.
2. A magnet is broken into two parts, each piece becoming a magnet with its
own pair of poles.
3. All the liberated electrons having reached the anode, saturation occurs.
4. The temperature ofthe conductor being raised, the motion of electrons
increases too.
5. The nucleus of an ordinary hydrogen atom consists of one proton, with one
electron moving around it.
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
question п. - вопрос, проблема
v. - сомневаться, ставить под вопрос in question — исследуемый,
рассматриваемый, о котором идет речь
(syn. involved, concerned, in issue, in point) open
to question - сомнительный, спорный beyond
question — вне сомнения out of the question — не
может быть и речи
• Sentences to be translated.
1. The substance in question contains traces of this element.
2. On logical grounds one might question this procedure.
144
3. The element in question can exist in two or more oxidat ion states.
4. The question arises of how closely these data presented the results obtained
in practice.
5. Using this technique in such a case is out of the question.
READING (19A)
• Read the passage closely and follow the historical development of elementary particle
physics. Interpret the title of the passage.
The Smallest of Objects Can Be Perceived
Only with the Largest of Instruments
The large investment now being made in instruments for high -energy-physics
research can be justified only because the pre ccdinggenerations of accelerators • have
already proved their worth. Fifty years ago only two kinds of apparently indivisible
particles were recognized: the electron and the proton. The remaining constituent of
the atom, the neutron, was discovered in 1932. In subsequent years, through
experiments with cosmic rays and with early accelerators, several additional particles
were identified. One ofthe first was the positron, the antiparticle ofthe electron.
Others were the neutrino, a particle without mass or e lectric charge, and the muon and
the pion, which have masses intermediate between those ofthe electron and the proton.
In the 1950's, when more powerful accelerators began operating, there was an
unexpected and in some respects alarming proliferation in th e number of known
particles. Within a few years the list extended to more than 100, most of them
classified as hadrons, or nuclear particles. Among the hadrons were several with the
new property of mattercalled strangeness. Later, it was necessary to add a nother class
of hadrons, bearing another whimsically (прихотливо) named property, charm. The
pace of discovery continued to increase. Particles that apparently signal the existence
ofTwo more classes have been observed. These newest classes, which have onl y begun
to be catalogued, are distinguished by properties called truth and beauty or top and
bottom.
For a time it seemed that all of these particles might have to be accorded equal
status as elementary objects. That possibility was deeply troubling, as it was difficult
to reconcile with the conviction that the laws of nature should be reasonably simple. It
was subsequently discovered, however, that all the hadrons could be arranged in
logical patterns, some of which have a lovely snowflake form. Moreover, the
existence of such patterns could be understood if it was assumed that the hadrons are
not elementary but arc made up ofthe more fundamental entities, that have been given
the name quarks.
In the view that now prevails among physicists there arc just tw o kinds of
elementary particles: leptons and quarks. Among the leptonsthe most familiar particle
is the electron. Also included in that class are the muon and two kinds of neutrino,
one associated with the electron and one with muon. A few years ago a new lepton
was discovered and given the designation tau. Presumably the tau also has an
associated neutrino, so that there should be six leptons altogether.
There also appear to be six kinds of quarks, labeled up, down, strange, charmed,
top and bottom. (As yet there is no experimental evidence forthe top quark, but
because all the other quarks and leptons come in pairs it is assumed that the bottom
quark also has a partner.) No one has observed a quark in isolation, but there are
substantial reasons for believing in their existence. Every known hadron (and there arc now a few hundred) can be explained as a combination of quarks or of quarks and
antiquarks, formed by explicit rules.
•
Look through the passage and find English equivalents for the following Russian phrases.
доказали свою ценность; в последующие годы; в некоторых отноше ниях; темп
открытий; различаются по существу; образованных по яв ным правилам
•
Answer the following questions:
1. What is the main idea ofthe passage?
2. Why can we justify the large investments in accelerator technique
development?
3. What can we say of the development pace in the field of elementary physics?
4. What makes scientists believe in quark existence?
CLASSWORK
READING (19B)
•
Skim the passage rapidly and answer the question given in the title.
ARE THERE FINAL INDIVISIBLE
CONSTITUENTS OF MATTER?
Our present-day knowledge of the constituents of matter is summarized in the
scheme given below. This scheme in away replaces the periodic table ofthe elements
ofthe chemists of the last century. Certa inly, it seems to be simpler.
ЛИ the particles shown are fermions, i.e. they have spin 1/2. The implication is that
for particles of each kind a conservation law exists, meaning that they cannot be
produced as single particles but only in particle -antiparticle pairs. There are two
82
classes of particles: the leptons, which do not feel the nuclear force, and the quarks,
which do. *Anothcr major difference is that quarks have 1/3 charge, whereas leptons
have integer electrical charges. The particles in the firs t line of the scheme differ
from those in the second line by one unit in electric charge. The two particles in each
column form a family as regards weak interactions in the sense that they can be
transformed into each other. Thus, in weak processes a "u" q uark can be transformed
into a "d" quark and vice versa, or an electron into an electron neutrino, etc. The mass
ofthe particles increases from left to right. Thus, besides the electron, a heavy
electron which is usually called a muon is known, and a coupl e of years ago a superheavy electron, the "t" particle, was detected. Each of these electron -like particles has
its own neutrino. *Although experimental upper limits on the masses of the neutrinos
are known, one ofthe most interesting problems is whether the masses of these
neutrinos are exactly zero or not.
Originally, three quarks (u, d and s) were known, but in the seventies the charm
quark and the beauty quark were discovered. *Because ofthe supposed symmetry
between leptons and quarks most physicists are convinced that a sixth quark, the top
quark, must exist. So far we do not understand the rules governing the masses of these
particles; hence it is not possible to predict the mass of a top quark. *Fora certain
time it was hoped that it could be produ ced with a powerful accelerator but it seems to
be heavier than the available energy would permit us to detect. It could be found with
the pp collider. Several theorists have speculated that quarks and leptons might not be
the ultimate constituents, but th at there might be a deeper layer of matter. They
introduced even smaller particles (sometimes called rishons or haplons) out of which
both quarks and leptons can be composed.
The "periodic system" of elementary particles showing the two families, the
PERIODIC SYSTEM" OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES
ELECTRIC CHARGE
+2/3
QUARKS
STRONG NUCLEAR FORCE
r©
© :©
UP
CHARM TRUTH
i
LEPTONS
NO STRONG NUCLEAR FORCE
© © :©
ELECTRI
CHARGEC
0
ELECTRON
NEUTRINO- MUON- 1 TAUNEUTRINO|NEUTRINO
quarks and the leptons, which are thought to be the fundamental constituents of
matter. They are all fermions (spin equal to 1 /2) and their masses increase from left
to right
-1/3in the diagram. The "t" (top or truth) quark has not yet been found. -1
©
©I©
0
• Choose the proper word from the list below.
DOWN
STRANGE' BEAUTY
© i ©
ELECTRON MUON 1 TAU
1. Quarks are the... elements ofthe proton, the neutron and other particles.
2. Scientists have discovered profound internal unity of electromagnetic and
weak ... .
3. Whereas there is just one kind of electric ... , there are three kinds of color ... .
4. The names of charges, of course, have nothing to do with ... in everyday sense.
5. There arc eight... of the color force.
6. The most important... between QCD and QED is that the gluons carry a color
charge, and the photon is neutral.
7. Quarks have not been seen yet in a free ....
8. There is not enough energy to break interquark ....
(binding, charge, constituent, state, color, difference, interaction, carriers)
HOMEWORK
(to be done in writing)
1. Translate into Russian.
1. All these elements are radioactive, their atoms being unstable and undergoing
spontaneous disintegration.
2. When compared on the basis ofthe energy absorbed, all types of high energy
radiation produce approximately similar effects on materials.
3. The conductivity depends on the numberof ions present, the substance being
more ionized in dilute solution.
4. In radio receivers we usually amplify an input signal by a number of amplifier
stages using pentode valves.
5. The pressure being reduced within the tube, certain remarkable phenomena
occur.
83
6. Having applied a positive pulse of voltage to the control electrode, we made
the valve conducting.
7. With the electrons being removed rapidly by the field, a space charge is left
surrounding the anode.
2. Translate into English. Use Participles and participle constructions in your
translation.
1. Используя ЭВМ для сших вычислений, они сэкономили (to save) мною
времени.
2. Получив необходимую энергию, электроны ионизируютатомы.
3. Когда быстрая частица проникает сквозь слюдяное (mica) окошко,
происходит ионизация.
4. Двигаясь к аноду, электроны могут сталки ваться с атомами или
молекулами газа.
5. Когда он возбужден, атом испускает квант излучения.
6. После того как информация обработана, выходное устройство передает
окончательный результат.
UNIT TWENTY
GRAMMAR: SHOULD В ПРИДАТОЧНЫХ
ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯХ
Should you see her, give her
my regards.
Should it really be the case,
please contact us.
Если вы увидите ее, передайте ей
привет.
Если такое действительно случится,
свяжитесь, пожалуйста, с нами.
Подобное использование should в начале придаточных предложений условия
характерно для стиля научной прозы или деловых писем, ноне для разговорной
речи.
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
provide (for) — давать, обеспечивать (что-то), предусматривать, providewith
— снабжать, обеспечивать (чем-то) provided (that), providing (вводит
придаточное предлож.) — при условии (что); в случае, если (syn. given that)
• Sentences to be translated.
1. This is possible provided the reactor under consideration is not too small.
2. Provided one knows the rate of the emission, one can determine the range of
the particles.
3. These terms may have arbitrary values providing equation (17) is satisfied.
4. Diode D 2 provides a reference voltage against which the regulated output
voltage is compared.
150
READING (20A)
• Read the passage. Search for the arguments to prove that a worldwide collaboration could
minimize the world expenditures for scientific research into the structure of matter.
THE NEXT GENERATION OF
PARTICLE ACCELERATORS
For some 60 years the effort to understand the ultimate structure of matter has
proceeded almost entirely through a single experimental technique. A particle of
matter is brought to high speed and made to strike another particle. From an
examination ofthe debris released in the aftermath of the collision, information
isgained about the nature of the particles and about the forces that act between them.
To carry out a program of such experiments it is necessary to have a source of
energetic particles. Cosmic rays provide a natural source, but the flux of particles is
diffuse and is beyond the control ofthe experimenter. A more practical source is a
particle accelerator, the device for increasing the speed of a particle and hence also
its energy.
One of the first particle accelerators, built by Ernest O. Lawrence in 1928, was
made of laboratory glassware a few inches in diameter. Most of the accelerators in
service today are linear descendants of Lawrence's device, but they have grown
enormously in size and complexity, the largest extending over many square
kilometers. The particle accelerator is no longer an instrument installed in a
laboratory; instead the laboratory is assembled around the accelerator. Building such
a machine costs hundreds of millions of dollars; operating it requires a staff of about
1,000 people and dozens of digital computers.
A new generation of particle accelerators is now in prospect. The first few are
just coming into operation; several more are under construction; others are still being
planned, and their characteristics arc not yet fixed. For both, the physicist and the
layman, the principal interest inspired by these new machines is in the results of the
experiments they will make possible, but the accelerators themselves also merit
notice. In the physics of elementary particles the highest available energy represents a
frontier marking one of the boundaries of experimentally verifiable knowledge. Several
ofthe new accelerators will be capable of attaining higher energies than any existing
machine, and so they will push the frontier into unexplored territory. In order to
reach those energies the accelerators will of necessity be larger, more complicated
and more expensive than their predecessors.
Largely because ofthe cost, the construction of an accelerator today requires the
resolution not only of technical problems but also of political, economic and
managerial ones. Money for scientific research is a scarce resource, and it is
imperative that it be used as efficiently as possible. Technical innovations have
brought a substantial reduction in the cost per unit energy of accelerating a particle.
It is encouraging to note that another means for minimizing the total world
expenditure is now emerging: through international cooperation the unnecessary
duplication of facilities can be avoided, and projects too large for any on e nation can
be undertaken by regional groups of nations and perhaps eventually through a
worldwide collaboration such as * CERN, the European Organization for Nuclear
Research, which has its headquarters in Geneva. At present, its Member States arc
Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany,
Greece, Hungary, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Spain,
Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, Israel, Japan, the Russian Federation, the
United States of America and Turkey.
• Re-read the passage carefully and explain how you understand the italicized
words.
• Look through the passage and supply answers to the following questions.
1. By means of what experimental techniques is information gained about the
structure of matter?
2. Why is an accelerator needed for investigating matter?
3. What modifications has the accelerator gone since its appearance in 1928?
4. What other problems besides technical should be taken into account in the
construction of an accelerator?
•
Reproduce the passage in English or in Russian.
CLASSWORK
READING (20B)
• Read the passages carefully and say why this discovery is of interest to
physicists.
A) THE TROPHIES THAT WILL BE HUNTED
WITH THE NEW ACCELERATORS
However much has been learned in th e past 50 years, it would be misleading to
suggest that the present understanding of elementary particles is even approaching
finality or completion. The status ofthe field is tantalizing rather than satisfying 1 ;
there is no shortage of questions to be ans wered. A first order
85
... is tantalizing rather than satisfying — скорее заставляет испытывать танталовы
муки, чем приносит удовлетворение of business for the new accelerators will be
filling in the blanks in the catalogue of hadrons, particularly those that incorporate
top and bottom quarks in their structure. It is also important to find out whether the
list of quarks and leptons ends with the six of each that are now known or whether
more will be found at higher energies. In a sense six quarks and six leptons are
already too many; all ofthe ordinary matter in the un iverse could be constructed out
ofjust four elementary particles: the electron, the electron neutrino and the up and
down quarks. The existence of the other leptons and quarks, which appear only in
high-energy-physics experiments, is a puzzle.
Another puzzle is the failure of all attempts so far to detect a free quark. Various
theoretical constructs have been offered, after the fact, to explain why quarks should
be permanently confined to hadrons. The possibility remains, however, that a quark
can be knocked loose from a hadron if enough energy is supplied. Future
experimental programs are therefore certain to include quark searches.
B) NEW STATE OF MATTER CREATED AT CERN
At a special seminar on 10 February, spokespersons from the experiments on
CERN's Heavy Ion programme presented compelling evidence for the existence of a
new state of matter in which quarks instead of being bound up into more complex
particles such as protons and neutrons are liberated to roam freely.
Theory predicts that this state must h ave existed at about 10 microseconds after
the Big Bang, before the formation of matter as we know it today, but until now it
had not been confirmed experimentally. Our understanding of how the universe was
created, which was previously unverified theory f or any point in time before the
formation of ordinary atomic nuclei, about three minutes after the Big Bang, has with
these results now been experimentally tested back to a point only a few microseconds
after the Big Bang.
Professor Luciano Maiani, CERN Di rector General, said: "Thecombined data
com'mgfrom the seven experiments on CERN's Heavy Ion programme have given a
clear picture of a new state of matter. This result verifies an important prediction of the
present theory offundemental forces between quarks. It is also an important step
forward in the understanding of the early evolution of the universe. We now have
evidence of a new stale of matter where quarks and gluons are not confined. There is
still an entirely new territory to be explored concerning the physical properties of
quark-gluon matter. The challenge now passes to the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider at
the Brookhaven National Laboratory and later to CERN's Large Hadron Collider. "
The aim of CERN's Heavy Ion programme was to collide lead ion s so as to create
immensely high energy densities which would break down the forces which confined
quarks inside more complex particles. A very high energy beam of lead ions (33 TeV)
was accelerated in CERN's Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS) and crashed into targets
inside the seven different experimental detectors. The collisions created temperatures
over 100 000 times as hot as the centre of the sun, and energy densities twenty times
that of ordinary nuclear matter, densities which have never before been re ached in
laboratory experiments. The collected data from the experiments gives compelling
evidence that a new state of matter has been created. This state of matter found in
heavy ion collisions at the SPS features many of the characteristics ofthe
theoretically predicted quark-gluon plasma, the primordial soup in which quarks and
gluons existed before they clumped together as the universe cooled down.
The project is an excellent example of collaboration in physics research.
Scientists from institutes in ov er twenty countries have participated in the
experiments. The programme has also allowed a productive partnership to develop
between high energy physicists and nuclear physicists. More importantly, this step
forward has been made possible by the collaborat ion between the individual
experiments. The picture of quark -gluon plasma resembles a jigsaw puzzle, with
many pieces provided by the different experiments. The data from any one
experiment is not enough to give the full picture but the combined results fr om all
experiments agree and fit. Whereas all attempts to explain them using established
particle interactions have failed, many of the observations are consistent with the
predicted signatures of a quark -gluon plasma.
The results from CERN present strong incentive forthe future planned
experiments. While all ofthe pieces ofthe puzzle seem to fit with a quark -gluon
plasma explanation, it is essential to study this newly produced matter at higher and
lower temperature in order to fully characterize its prope rties and definitively
confirm the quark gluon plasma interpretation.
CERN Press Releases 2000
HOMEWORK
• Translate into Russian.
1. Should there be enough matter inside the Universe, it would close on itself
and be finite.
2. Should there be any invisible matter in the Universe, the latter would make up
the difference needed for the Universe to close.
3. Should neutrinos have a small mass, they could provide energy density to
close the Universe.
4. Should there be any other presently unknown subatomic particles, th e same
might be true.
86
5. Should the Universe be finite, its expansion would eventually stop and be
replaced by a contraction.
2. Translate into English. Begin each sentence with should.
Model: Если бы вы помогли мне, я был бы вам признателен. Should you help
me, 1 would be thankful to you.
1. Если бы эта проблема обсуждалась на конференции, я выступил бы с
докладом.
2. Если бы вы поверили нашему опыту, вы избежали бы многих зат руднений.
3. Если бы вы провели наблюдения за температурами, результаты были бы
совсем иными.
4. Если бы появились расхождения между нашими данными, мы могли бы
обсудить их.
5. Если бы была разработана новая методика, вы могли бы восполь зоваться
ее преимуществами.
6. Если бы вы потерпели неудачу в испытаниях, мы могли бы по мочь вам.
7. Если бы было достигнуто соглашение о совместной работе, мы могли бы
гарантировать успех.
8. Если бы появились какие-то разногласия, мы могли бы их обсу дить.
SUPPLEMENTARY
READING
TEXT 1
• The paper says that the 21 st century would be impossible without the computer. Do you
think the same? What reasons does the author give in favour of his opinion? Read the
passage below attentively and find all the facts in favour of the idea.
THE COMPUTER REVOLUTION
Without the computer space programs would be impossible and the 21 st century
would be impossible. The incredible technology we are building, the complexity and
the knowledge we are amassing are all beyond the unaided mind and muscle of man.
More than any other single invention, perhaps even more than wheel, the computer
offers a promise so dazzling and a threat so awful that it will forever change the
direction and meaning of our lives.
Computers today arc running our factories, planning our cities, teaching our
children, and forecasting the possible futures we maybe heir to.
In the new age of exploration the computer is solving in milliseconds the
problems a generation of mathematicians would need years to solve without its help.
The small, fifty-ninc-pound computer, which takes up only one cubic foot of space in
the vehicle will do all of the mathematics needed to solve one billion different space manoeuvring, navigation, and re-entry problems. Moreover, it translates the answer
into simple numbers and tells the astronaut the altitude to which he must bring the
spacecraft before firing the thrustcrs, and indicates to him exactly how long they
must be fired.
TEXT 2
• Read the passage below as fast as you can and say a few words about the computer
applications mentioned in the text.
microfiche ['maikroufi(:)Jl n ииформ. микрофиша (карточка
с несколькими кадрами микрофильма)
descendant/; потомок thief |Bi:f] п пор
COMPUTERS CONCERN YOU
When Charles Babbage, a professor of mathematics at Cambridge University,
invented the first calculating machine in 1812 he could hardly have imagined the
situation we find ourselves in today. Nearly everything wc do in the modern world is
helped, or even controlled, by computers, the complicated descendants of his simple
machine. Computers are being used more and more extensively in the world today,
forthe simple reason that they arc far more efficient than human beings. They have
much better memories and can store huge amounts of information, and they can do
calculations in a fraction of the time taken by a human mathematician. No m an alive
can do 500,000 sums in one second, but an advanced computer can. In fact, computers
can do many of the things wc do, but faster and better. They can pay wages, reserve
seats on planes, control machines in factories, work out tomorrow's weather, an d even
play chess, write poetry, or compose music. Let's look now at some ofthe ways in
which computers concern people in their daily lives and work.
Chief inspector Harston talks about ways in which computers can help the police
fight crime. Members of the public often think of detective work as fast and exciting
when most of it is slow and boring. For example, a detective on a stolen carcase may
have to check through long lists of information, and in the time it takes him to do this
the thief may well escape. With the new National Police Computer we are now able to
find out details of car ownership and driving licences in a fraction of the time it takes
by traditional methods. In police work speed is often essential, so computers are ideal
for helping us catch criminals.
Many people associate computers with the world of science and maths, but they
are also a great help to scholars in other subjects, in history, literature and so on. It's
now possible for a scholar to find a book or article he needs very qui ckly, which,
when a million or more new books are published each year, is quite an advantage.
There's a system, controlled by computer, of giving books a code number, reducing
them in size by putting them on microfiche, and then storing 3,000 or more in a
container no biggerthan a washing machine. You tell the computer which subject
you're interested in and it produces any microfiche you need in seconds. It's rather
like going to an expert who has read all the works on your subject and can remember
where to find the correct information, which few human experts can! There are also
systems being developed to translate articles from foreign magazines by computer,
and to make up the many lists of information that are needed in a modem library. So
computers can help us to deal with the knowledge explosion in many ways.
88
ТЕХТЗ
•
•
Skim the text and say what it is about.
Find a suitable title to it.
Even before a rocket is launched, it is flown from ten to a hundred times through
space-computer-simulated space — on flights constructed of mathematical symbols,
on trajectories built of information bits, encountering hazards that are numbers
without menace. For one ofthe computer's greatest assets is its ability to simulate one
or a million variants of the same theme. "What if?" is the question the computer can
answer accurately, swiftly, and over and over again. From this variety of possibilities,
a trip from the earth to the moon can be simulated as often as necessary, with every
possible trajectory plotted and every mile of the journey through space marked with
symbolic signposts that will provide assurance that, mathematically at least, man has
travelled this way before.
The computer can do far more than simulate the mechanics of space flight; it can
furnish accurate models of life itself. In computer simulation, then, there may come
the great breakthrough needed to convert the inexact social sciences — the studies of
man as a social being — into exact science. For the sociologist the problem has
always been the lack of an adequate yardstick by which to measure and count. The one
absolutely essential tool of science is the measuring device. Anything that can be
counted, measured, quantified, can be studied with scientific accuracy, Now it
becomes possible to perform controlled experiments, in which every factor that goes
in is known in advance and the answers that come out are then valid.
With computer simulation you can have a series of problems in which you can
figure out all the ramifications, all the permutations and combinati ons, and do it very
quickly and know the different combinations that are at stake. So you can use it really
as a means of controlled experiment. You can get a computer model of a city and play
out all the different effects, so that if you decide, for examp le, to relocate traffic in
one way you can trace out very quickly, on the model, the effects on industry
locations, residential densities, and the like. And more important, when you have
alternative plans ofthis kind you can then choose, and that is the fu ndamental aspect
of all such notions of planning. It allows you to have a sense of wider choice, to see
therefore the consequences of it and say, I prefer this scheme rather than another.
TEXT 4
•
89
Read the passage carefully. Choose the key word or sentence that best sums up
the main idea of each paragraph.
There are two types of computers, the analogue and the digital. Basically, today's
analogue computer is a device for measuring such physical quantities as lengths and
voltages and, through a mechanical linkage, exhibiting the measurement as a
numerical value. However, the analogue computer is limited to special classes of
problems and when most people say 'computer' today, they mean the digital computer,
which is a marvel of precision and accuracy, for i t works with specific units rather
than approximations.
The modern electronic digital computer counts with incredible speed using only
two numbers - the one and zero of what mathematicians call the binary system. The
counting ability of the computer is used to feed it information. But first the
information is translated into a code.
The information is then stored in a memory bank made of magnets. The direction
in which electrical signals run through the magnets means one or zero, yes or no, off
or on. Each magnet contains one piece ofinformation called a bit. A large computer
system can store hundreds of millions of such information bits.
But information by itselfis useless. The computer must be told what to do with it
— to add, subtract, multiply, ordividc the coded pulses stored in its memory. Parts of
that memory contain instructions, prepared by a human brain, that provide the
computerwith the road to follow in orderto solve a problem. These instructions are
called the program.
What makes the computer different from an adding machine is that the
computercan modify its instructions.
If a problem cannot be solved by following one route, the computer can search its
memory for another set of instructions until a solution is found. And it docs all this at
superhuman speeds. The on-off switching of the computer's logic circuits has been
clocked at a billionth ofa second. That is to one second what one second is to thirty
years.
But the computer cannot actually think. It performs all ofits functions by route.
Once an answer is achieved, another program within the memory tells the computer
how to display the solution, to type it out on paper, display it as pictures or words on
a television screen, or perhaps even to speak the answer in words a man can hear.
In every field ofhuman endeavourthe body of knowledge is being swollen to the
bursting point by a flood of new facts, which by their existence help to generate still
more facts until the mass ofinformation threatens to engulf us. But the problem can
be controlled and reduced to usable proportions by the computer. AH that is required
is a human mind at one end of the system with enough sense to say "Halt! I've learned
just about all I want to know about wickets." This will become the touchstone to the
computerized library ofthe 21st century, in which requests for information will be
answered instantly and as fully as the user wants.
90
TEXT 5
• Translate the passage at sight.
retrieve v отыскивать
justify v подтверждать
schedule v составлять график, таблицу
setting n id. окружение
rule of thumb практическое, эмпирическое правило
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
Expert systems are a class of computer programs that can advise, analyse, design,
diagnose, explain, explore, forecast, form concepts, identify, interpret, justify, learn,
manage, monitor, plan, present, retrieve, schedule, test and tutor. They address
problems normally thought to require human specialists for their solution. Some of
these programs have achieved expert levels of performance on the problems for which
they were designed.
Expert systems are usually developed with the help of human experts who solve
specific problems and reveal their thought processes as they proceed. If this pr ocess
of protocol analysis is successful, the computer program based on this analysis will
be able to solve the narrowly defined problems as well as an expert.
Experts typically solve problems that are unstructured and ill -defined, usually in
a setting that involves diagnosis or planning. They cope with the lack of structure by
employing heuristics, which are the rules of thumb that people use to solve problems
when a lack of time or understanding prevents an analysis of all the parameters
involved. Likewise, expert systems employ programmed heuristics to solve problems.
Experts engage in several different problem -solving activities: identify the
problem, process data, generate questions, collect information, establish hypothesis
space, group and differentiate, pursue and test hypotheses, explore and refine, ask
general questions, and make decisions.
As researchers of the domain point out, a robust expert system that can explain,
justify, acquire new knowledge, adapt, break rules, determine relevance and beha ve as
human experts do, will have to use a multitude of knowledge representations, that lie
in a space whose dimensions include deep and surface (representations),
qualitative/quantitative,
approximate/exact,
specific/general
and
descriptive/prescriptive r epresentations.
Expert systems, like human experts, can have both deep and surface
representations of knowledge. Deep representations are causal models, categories
abstractions and analogies. In such cases, we try to represent an understanding of
structure and function. Surface representations are often empirical associations. With
surface representations, all the system knows is
that an empirical association exists; it is unable to explain why, beyond repeating the
association. Systems that use knowledge represented in different forms have been termed
multilevel systems.
Work isjust beginning in building such multilevel systems, and they will be a major
research topic for this decade. Work needs to be done in studying and representing in a
general way the different problem-solving activities an expert does. When you build expert
systems, you realize that power behind them is that they provide a regimen (управлеи ие)
for experts to crystallize and codify their knowledge, and in the knowledge lies the power.
TEXT 6
• Read the passage and answer the question:
How many and what steps were there in the computer technology development?
GREAT STRIDES IN COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY
Still faster means of getting at computer -stored information must be developed. The
problems of communicating with the computer are becoming increasingly apparent. Punch
cards, typewriter terminals, and paper tapes all demand special codes and computer
languages. Such a situation can no longer be accepted, for computers already calculate at a
blinding pace, and their speeds are steadily increasing.
The great leap forward in computer technology was attained in 1947 with the
development of the transistor. Transistors can perform all ofthe functions of vacuum tubes
but are flea-sized by comparison and require only a fraction as much power to operate. The
transistor is made of a semiconductor, a crystal that conducts electricity better than glass,
though not as well as metal. The manufacture of a transistor starts with a single pure crystal
of semiconductor, such as germanium. The addition of very small amounts of a chemical
impurity such as arsenic introduces excess electrons into the crystal lattice. These electrons
can move easily to carry electricity. Other atomic impurities such as boron soak u p
electrons from the lattice and thus create deficiencies, or holes, where there are no
electrons. The hole, in effect, is a positive charge, the opposite of the negatively charged
electron. Both holes and electrons skip through the material with ease.
Arsenic- and boron-doped crystals arc sliced into wafers and then sandwiched together
so that alternating layers containing either free electrons or holes face each other. Holes
91
and electrons, carrying opposite electrical charges, are attracted to each othera nd a few drift
across the junction, creating an electrical field.
ti \:. И. Курншнили
161
By adding electrical contact points to each ofthe layers in the sandwich, a
transistor is created.
Current flowing between two of the contact points can be controlled by sending
an electrical signal to a third point. The signal can thus be amplified from fifty to
forty thousand times. Moreover, the current keeps step with the incoming signal, so
that when it is pumped back out again, the signal is a precisely amplified image ofthe
original signal.
By 1955, the transistor was replacing the vacuum tube in computers, shrinking
their size and increasing their speed. The transition from vacuum tubes to transistors
was but the first step, however. Integrated circuits that combine both amplifiers and
other electrical components on slivers of mate rial far smaller than even transistors arc
shrinking the size of the computer still further. The integrated circuits (1С) conserve
space, and they also save time and the effort of linking up individual components.
This means that a quarter-inch chip containing five orsix complete circuitscan move
information across its route faster than a transistorized circuit because every element
within it is closer than are the elements of transistors. On the horizon is yet another
shrinkage, which will be made possible by a process, still undeveloped, called large scale integration, or LSI. An LSI chip will be only a tenth of an inch square and will
carry as many as one hundred circuits. The difference between an LSI chip and an 1С
chip may seem like hairsplitting, but on such negligible differences are built great
strides in computer technology.
The limiting speed on computers is the speed of light. Computer engineers used
this fact to create a standard measure — the light-foot — by which to clock computer
speeds. It is defined as the distance, about twelve inches, that light travels in a
billionth of a second. Miniaturization will narrow the gap between circuits and so
reduce the number of light-feet that must be traversed through the logic circuits. But
there are still other limitations that must be overcome before computer processing
will be rapid enough to satisfy the demands of perfectionists.
TEXT 7
• Read the article carefully and answer the following questions:
1. What is the principle of the action of an optical switch?
2. How far are wc from an optical computer?
EUROPE LEADS RESEARCH IN OPTICAL COMPUTING
Until now, the switches inside computers have been electronic. European
scientists are going to demonstrate the world's fir st optical computer. This
demonstration will come 22 years after the theory behind optical computers was first
predicted by researchers from the computer company IBM. However, there is still a
large gap between what theoretical physicists believe can be do ne, and what
electronic engineers know is possible.
In theory, optical switches leave their electronical counterparts standing. It is like
comparing the speed of light with the speed of electricity. Optical switches are so fast
and yet so small that an optical device of one square centimetre can resolve I () 7
separate spots of light and each can be switched on and off at a speed of 30
nanoseconds. This means that an optical device one square centimetre in area could,
in theory at least, handle 3 x lO 1 4 bits per second. This rate is equivalent to everybody
in the world having a telephone conversation at the same time.
The optical switch works on the principle of optical "bistability". Usually, when a
beam of light is passed through a transparent material, the relationship between the
intensities of light entering and the light leaving is linear. However, under certain
circumstances a non-linear relationship occurs. A small increase in the intensity of
light entering the material leads to a much greater increas e in the intensity of light
leaving the material.
In optical switches, the material is placed inside a resonant cavity. In practice,
this means that the edges of the material arc highly polished and parallel to each
other. With such materials some of the light entering becomes "trapped" inside as it
bounces back and forth against each polished surface. In other words, it resonates.
This changes the refractive index of the material, with the result that for a given
intensity of light entering the switch ther e are two possible intensities of light leaving
it.
In other words, there is the equivalent to an "off" position and an "on" position
because there arc two stable states and the material shows optical bistability. Up to
now a switching speed of 10 13 seconds has been achieved, although the power needed
to generate this is in the kilowatt range. A speed of one nanosecond (10 9 ) is possible
in the milliwatt power range.
TEXT 8
• Read the passage carefully and answer the question:
How many and what means of increasing computer speeds are mentioned in the
text?
THE FUTURE OF COMPUTERS
During the past decade development work for extremely powerful and cost effective computers has concentrated on new architectures. In place of "scalar"
processors, the emphasis has moved towards "vector" and "parallel" processors,
commonly referred to as "supercomputers". These machines are now in fairly
widespread use in many branches of science.
93
Vectorization of quark field calculations in particle physics has improved
performance by factors of ten or twenty compared with the traditional scalar
algorithms.
Computers must still be programmed for every action they take, which is a great
limitation. How quickly the programmer can tell it what to do becomes a major drag
on computer speeds. The time lag can be shortened by linking up different computers
and designing more efficient devices to jam information in and pull it out ofthe
machine, but the basic limitation of the step -by-step program remains.
A means around this roadblock i s called parallel processing. Instead of solving a
problem by following step-by-stcp instructions ofthe program the arithmetic and
memory units will break the main problem down into a number of smaller problems
that will be solved simultaneously. Parallel processing was introduced into the fourth
generation computer called 1LLI AC IV named forthe University of Illinois, where it
was designed.
The incredibly rapid speeds we arc approaching will be of little value without a
corresponding increase in the speed with which we can get at the computer -generated
information. One new approach, called graphics, uses the cathode -ray tube — the
picture tube of your TV set — to display the information pictorially. A light pen —
actually an electronic pointer — can be touched to the screen, and conversation
between man and machine can be accomplished. For example, the computer can flash
a series of options on its screen. The scientist selects the one he wants by touching it
with a light pen. The great advantage of these so -called graphic computers is in
solving design problems and in coping with any trial -and-crror situation.
The graphic computer offers the most flexible means of communication between
man and machine yet developed. For example, the designer can draw a car r oof on the
screen with his light pen. The computer will do the mathematics required to straighten
out the lines and, in effect, present a draftman's version of the designer's idea. The
computer will then offer a variety of options to the designer — "front view", "rear
view", "cross section", and so on. All the designer needs to do is to touch his light
pen to the appropriate choice, and the computer does the rest. Similarly, the designer
can circle any part of the drawing on the screen with his pen and reque st a blow-up —
a large-scale drawing of just that part he has circled.
The end product of this man-machine design team is not a series of drawings on
paper but a set of equations that precisely define every point of design. Eventually,
these symbols will be fed to the production line machinery, which will translate the
symbols into steel and glass forms of automobiles.
TEXT 9
• What is your idea of computers-translators? Is the problem feasible today or not? Read the
following passage and say whether the author is optimistic or sceptical about it? Find the
facts to prove your idea.
COMPUTERS-TRANSLATORS
Foreign-language translation may prove to be just a bit more than computer can
handle. From the Tower of Babel (вавилонское столпотворение) on there have been
countless examples of man's inability to understand man. What hope is there then for
a machine to understand man, or even another machine? Machines translators would
be an enormous boon (благо), especially to science and technology. A machine
translator would obviously be a great aid.
In the 1980s a machine was developed that can optically scan the written
characters and print out the translation. It has a program that translates Chinese into
English and English into Chinese. At a press demonstration the programmer asked for
a phrase to translate and a reporter said: "Out of sight, out of mind". The phrase was
dutifully fed into the computer, which replied by printing out a string of Chinese
characters. "There," said the programmer, "that means 'out of sight, out of mind'."
The reporter was sceptical. " I don't know Chinese and I don't know that that
means 'out of sight, out of mind'."
"Well," replied the engineer, "it's really quite simple. We'll ask the other program
to translate the Chinese into English."
And so once again a string of characters, this time Chinese, was fed into the
computer. The translation was typed out almost immediately and it read: "invisible
idiot".
In order to make communication between man and machine as painless and easy
as possible, the computer is being taught not only to speak but also to listen. The
Autonetics Corporation has built a system completed with audio analysers and all of
the complex electronics needed to give a computer " ears" that will actually hear the
words spoken into its microphone. The vocabulary is still limited.
During a demonstration, the engineer spoke slowly and distinctly a handful ofthe
computer's words, and the latter dutifully typed them back. But on one wor d it failed.
While counting "one, two, three," the computer typed back, "one, two, four."
Whereupon the demonstrator snapped "idiot," and the computer, in a veritable
machine version of British aplomb, calmly replied, "Not in vocabulary."
• Read the passage carefully. Describe the design and operation of a synchrotron (see the
figure) on p. 167.
THE NEXT GENERATION OF PARTICLE ACCELERATORS
The limit to the maximum practical energy of a linear accelerator is the cost of
the thousands of accelerator caviti es and their associated radio-frequency power
supplies. The way to avoid that cost is to employ only a few cavities but to make
each particle passthrough them many times. Undcrthe influence of a magnetic field
an electrically charged particle follows a cur ved trajectory. By arranging many
magnets in a ring the particle can be made to follow a circular orbit, or any other
closed curve. A bunch or cluster of particles can circle the ring several million times,
passing through the radio-frequency cavities and gaining energy on each revolution.
An accelerator built in this way is called a synchrotron.
All the large new accelerators that are now planned or under construction are
synchrotrons. It is therefore worthwhile to consider their operation in somewhat
greater detail. The magnets that make up the ring are of two kinds. The dipole
magnets, which have two poles (one north and one south), generate a uniform
magnetic field; they accomplish the bending ofthe particle trajectories. Quadruple
magnets, which give rise to a field with two north poles and two south, focus them
into a narrower beam, acting much like lenses. Interspersed among the magnets are
the radio-frequency cavities, where the actual acceleration takes place. Specialized
magnctsand electrodes must also be provided for injecting the particles into the ring
and for extracting them from it.
The synchrotron operates in cycles. When a bunch of particles is first injected,
the fields of the bending magnets are adjusted so that the particles precisely follo w
the curvature of the vacuum tube. As the energy of the particles increases on each
revolution the field strength in the bending magnets must also be smoothly increased.
When the maximum energy is reached, the beam is extracted; then the magnetic field
is allowed to fall to its original level in preparation for the next bunch of particles.
The accelerator is called a synchrotron because the particles automatically
synchronize their motion with the rising magnetic field and the rising frequency of
the accelerating voltage.
The highest energies are not attempted with a single machine; instead, several
machines arc lined up in series. Each one augments the particle energy by a factor of
10 or even 100, then passes the beam on to the next accelerator in the seq uence. In
several instances older accelerators serve as injectors or preliminary stages for newer
and for more powerful machines.
95
In a proton accelerator the first stage is most often a device ofthe kind built in
1928 by John D. Cockcroft and Ernest T.S. Walton at the Cavendish Laboratory ofthe
University of Cambridge. It is a large transformer and rectifier that generates a
potential of about a million volts between an inner electrode and an outer shell.
Protons, obtained by ionizing hydrogen atoms, arc r eleased at the inner electrode;
when they emerge (through a hole in the shell), they have an energy of about 1 McV.
The next stage is often a linac, which typically raises the energy per proton to 50
or even 200 Mev. From the linac the protons can be injec ted into a synchrotron,
which may be the final link in the chain or may serve merely to boost the energy
ofthe protons for injection into a larger synchrotron.
PEP STORAGE RING
SPEAR
STORAGE RING
MAIN-RING
SYNCHROTRON
NEUTRINO
MESON
LINAC
COCKCROFT GENERATOR
WALTON
TEXT 11
• Read the passage carefully and find arguments to prove that construction of a Tevatron is
a very difficult task even with the present day technology.
TEVATRON
Building the Tevatron has turned out to be a challenging task even today. The
most obvious problem is that of cooling almost 1,000 magnets, strung out over 4.5
degrees Kelvin, the temperature where the special conductors of the magnet windings
lose all resistance to the flow of electricity. In order to maintain that temperature a
river of liquid helium is pumped through the ring. Twent y-four small refrigeration
plants are spaced around the tunnel, and the central helium liquefler is the largest in
the world, with a capacity of 4,000 liters per hour.
The windings in the magnets are formed of a niobium -titanium alloy embedded in
a copper mat rix. Almost 19,000 miles of this cable will be required to complete the
ring. At maximum field strength the superconductors will carry a current of 4,600
amperes, and when a magnet is "quenched", or loses the superconducting property, the
energy stored in the field (about half a million joules per magnet) must be dissipated
without destroying the windings.
A particularly taxing problem has been the need to maintain the uniformity ofthe
magnetic field to an accuracy of better than one part in 1,000. Because the windings
are immersed in their own field they are subjected to a reactive force of about a ton
per linear inch. The coils cannot be allowed to move even a thousandth of an inch,
however, because the movement would distort the field and might also g ive rise to too
much frictional heat. The windings are immobilized by laminated collars of stainless
steel. The alignment of the magnets is also complicated by thermal contraction when
the ring is cooled to its operating temperature; a magnet six meters lo ng contracts by
about two centimeters.
It is worthwhile pausing to consider just how much energy 1 TeV per proton is. In
units more commonly applied to macroscopic objects, a 1 -TeV particle has an energy
of 1.6 ergs, which is roughly the kinetic energy of a flying mosquito. At full intensity
the Tevatron will accelerate 5xl0 13 protons at a time, which will give the total beam
an energy of eight million joules. That is comparable to the energy of a 100-pound
artillery shell. If the beam should evergo out of control, it could melt the walls of the
vacuum chamber and destroy the surrounding magnets; obviously such an accident
must be avoided.
When the particles in a synchrotron have reached their full energy, they are
nudged out of their orbit by a special mag net and deflected into an external beam line.
Eventually, they strike a target. Interactions of the protons with
97
the target can be studied directly, and it is also possible to create beams of secondary
particles knocked out of the target. There are separa te areas for experiments with
protons (the primary particles), with mesons (particles of intermediate mass, such as
the pion), with neutrinos and muons, and with photons.
TEXT 12
• Gamma-Ray-Line Astronomy is a young science. Skim the passage rapidly (3
min.) and find facts concerning its origin, age and field of research. Reproduce
the passage using the diagram on p. 170.
GAMMA-RAY-LINE ASTRONOMY
The nature ofthe universe has been deduced almost entirely from the photons, or
quanta of electromagnetic energy, that arrive in the vicinity of the earth. Until half a
century ago astronomers could detect only photons with energies of between 1.5 and
3.5 electron volts: the photons of visible light. Then they began to extend the photon
energy range downward into parts of the infrared and radio regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum and upward into the near ultraviolet. With the advent of
rockets, high-altitude balloons and artificial satellites they were able to extend it
much farther upward to the energy range of photons that cannot penetrate the earth's
atmosphere: the photons of the far ultraviolet, X -rays and gamma rays.
Gamma rays are the most energetic form of electromagnetic radiation; the energy
of their photons is measured in millions of electron volts (MeV), and in principle it
has no upper limit. Gamma-ray photons from space were first detected some two
decades ago. The early detectors simply recorded the arrival ofthe photons without
being able to analyse their energies, as the photons of light are a nalysed into spectral
lines by a spectrograph. Now, however, instruments have been developed that can
detect gamma-ray spectral lines. They are beginning to yield information on the high energy processes and objects that command the attention of modern ast ronomers, such
as supernovas, neutron stars and phenomena at the center of galaxies.
Whereas the lines in the optical spectrum arise from transitions between the
energy levels of electrons in atoms, lines in the gamma -ray spectrum arise from
transitions between the energy levels of atomic nuclei.
In the eight years that have passed since those first observations were made
several research grciips have been flying gamma -ray telescopes mostly on balloons
but sometimes in satellites, in attempts to raise the i nstruments above nearly all ofthe
earth's'atmospherc and detect gamma -ray lines of astrophysical origin. The field is
still in its infancy.
98
Object
—► matter <-> energy
y-Ray-Line
—->
X-ray/y-ray
nuclear decay
TEXT 13
• Read the passage and give a title to each paragraph.
PERSONAL COMPUTERS
There has been talk of a "computer revolution" ever since the electronics industry
learned in the late 1950'sto inscribe miniature electronic circuits on a chip of silicon.
What has been witnessed so far has been a steady, albeit remarkably speedy,
evolution. The evolution of the small personal computer followed, perhaps inevitably,
from the advent ofthe microprocessor. It was in 1971 that the Intel Corpo ration
succeeded in inscribing all the elements of a central processing unit on a single
integrated-circuit chip. That first microprocessor had only a four-bit word size, but
within a year Intel produced an eight -bit processor and in 1974 there was an improved
version, the Intel 8080. In 1975, a device flexible enough to be considered the first
commercially available personal compu ter was developed by M ITS, Inc. Now,
however, with the proliferation of personal computers the way may indeed be open
for a true revolution in how business is conducted, in how people organize their
personal affairs and perhaps even in how people think.
A computer is essentially a machine that receives, stores, manipulates and
communicates information. It does so by breaking a task down into logical operations
that can be carried out on binary numbers — strings of 0's and 1 's — and doing
hundreds of thousands or millions of such operations per second. At the heart of the
computer is the central processing unit, which performs the basic arithmetic and logic
functions and supervises the operation of the entire system. In a personal computerthe
central processing unit is a microprocessor: a single integrated circuit on a chip of
silicon that is typically about a quarter of an inch on a side. Othersilicon chips
constitute the computer's primary memory, where both instructions and data can be
stored. Still other chips govern the input and output of data and carry out control
operations. The chips are mounted on a heavy plastic board; a printed pattern of
conductors interconnects the chips and supplies them with power. The board is
enclosed in a cabinet; in some i nstances there are several boards.
Two major determinants of the computational power of a microprocessor arc its
word size, which governs the "width" of the computer's data path, and the frequency
of its electronic clock, which synchronizes the computer's operations. The trend in
microprocessors is toward a larger word size and a higher frequency. As the word size
increases, an operation can be completed in fewer machine cycles; as the frequency
increases, there arc more cycles per second. In general, a lar ger word size also brings
the ability to access a larger volume of memory. The first generation of true personal
computers had eight-bit microprocessors, then 16-bit ones and the most recently
introduced systems have 32-bit microprocessor chips. As for the clock frequency, the
trend has been from one megahertz (one million cycles pcrsccond) some ten years ago
to 10 megahertz or more today.
Information is entered into the computer by means of a keyboard or is transferred
into it from secondary storage on magnetic tapes or disks. The computer's output is
displayed on a screen, cither the computer's own cathode -ray tube, called a monitor,
or an ordinary television screen. The output called a modem (for modulatordemodulator) can be attached to convert the compu ter's digital signals into signals for
transmission over telephone lines.
The chips and other electronic elements and the various peripheral devices
constitute the computer's hardware. The hardware can do nothing by itself; it requires
the array of programs, or instructions, collectively called software. The core of the
software isan "operating system" that controlsthe computer's operations and manages
the flow of information. The operating system mediates between the machine and the
human operator and between the machine and an "application" program that enables
the eomputerto perform a specific task: solving a differential equation, calculating a
payroll or editing a letter. Programs are ordinarily stored in secondary -memory media
and arc read into the primary memory as they are needed for a particular application.
TEXT 14
• Read the passage and find answers to the following questions:
/ . In what units is the memory capacity of a computer
measured? 2. How many and what types of memory are
99
discussed in the text? J. What are their advantages and
drawbacks?
MEMORY
There are two kinds of primary memory: read -only memory (ROM) and randomaccess memory (RAM). Read-only memory is for information that is "written in" at
the factory and is to be stored permanentl y. It cannot be altered. For a singleapplication computer such as a word processor the information in ROM might include
the application program. In the case of a versatile personal computer it would include
at least the most fundamental of the "system pro grams", those that get a computer
going when it is turned on or interpret a keystroke on the keyboard or cause a file
stored in the computer to be printed. As the cost of ROM drops there has been a
tendency among manufacturers to include more and more syst em programs in ROM
rather than on secondary-storage media.
Random-access memory is also called read/write memory: new information can be
written in and read out as often as it is needed. RAM chips store information that is
changed from time to time, includ ing both programs and data. For example, a
program for a particular information is read into RAM from a secondary storage disk;
once the program is in RAM its instructions are available to the microprocessor. A
RAM chip holds information in a repetitive ar ray of microelectronic "cells", each cell
storing one bit. The density of commercially available memory chips has increased by
a factor of 64 over the past decade and by 1984 the 256-kilobit chip was widely
available.
Even though the individual memory chip is an array of bits, information is
generally transferred into and out primary memory in the form of bytes, and the
memory capacity of the computer is measured in bytes. A typical personal computer
comes with a RAM capacity of between 16 and 64 kilobytes, which can be expanded
by the addition of extra memory boards, or modules. In general it is a good rule to
buy a system that has at least enough memory to accomodate the largest application
program one expects to execute. Most off-the-shelf program packages carry an
indication of the memory required.
The standard medium for secondary storage is the floppy disk: a flexible disk of
Mylar plastic now either 5 1/4 or eight inches in diameter, coated on one side or both
sides with a magnetic material. Informatio n is stored in concentric tracks of minute
magnetized regions; changes in the direction of magnetization represent binary O's or
1 's. The information is written onto the disk and retrieved from it by a recording
head that is moved radially across the spin ning disk to a particulartrack. The track in
turn is divided into a numberof sectors, and as a rule information is written or read
one sectorat a time. Depending on the particular format there arc between eight and
26 sectors per track and each sector hold s from 128 to 512 bytes of data. The total
storage capacity of a floppy disk varies according to the density of the data stored
along a track (as high as 7,000 bits per inch), the density of the concentric tracks (as
high as 150 tracks per radial inch) and the number of segments into which each track
is divided. Most floppy disks now have a capacity of from 125 to 500 kilobytes; disks
of higher density arc beginning to be available.
A more expensive alternative to the floppy disk is the Winchester disk. A
personal-computer Winchester disk unit can have a capacity of from five to 50
megabytes (millions of bytes) and it can transfer data faster than a floppy disk. On
the other hand, the Winchester disk is permanently sealed in the drive unit, whereas a
floppy disk can be removed from the drive and replaced by a fresh disk.
A simpler, less expensive secondary-memory medium is the audio magnetic -tape
cassette. One cassette can store about as much information as a relatively low capacity floppy disk. The access ti me to a particular address, or storage location, is
much longerfortapc than it is fordisk because the speed ofthe tape is much lower than
that of a disk and because the information is a single linear sequence.
TEXT 15
• Read the passage carefully and say what software means arc described in it.
SOFTWARE
Although the hardware of a computer ultimately determines its capacity for
storing and processing information, the user seldom has occasion to deal with the
hardware directly. A hierarchy of programs, wh ich together constitute the software of
the computer, intervenes between the user and the hardware.
The part of the software that is most closely associated with the hardware is the
operating system. To understand the kind of tasks done by the operating sy stem,
consider the sequence of steps that must be taken to transfer a file of data from the
primary memory to disk storage. It is first necessary to make certain there is enough
space available on the disk to hold the entire file. Other files might have to be deleted
in order to assemble enough contiguous blank sectors. For the transfer itself
sequential portions ofthe file must be called up from the primary memory and
combined with "housekeeping" information to form a block of data that will exactly
fill a sector. Each block must be assigned a sector address and transmitted to the disk.
Numbers called checksums that allow errors in storage or transmission to be detected
and sometimes corrected must be calculated. Finally, some record must be kept of
where the file of information has been stored.
If all these tasks had to be done under the direct supervision of the user, the
storage ofinformation in a computer would not be worth the trouble. Actually, the
entire procedure can be handled by the operating syste m; the user merely issues a
single command, such as "Save file". When the information in the file is needed
100
again, an analogous command (perhaps "Load file") begins a sequence of events in
which the operating system recovers the file from the disk and rest ores it to the
primary memory.
In most instances an application program is written to be executed in conjunction
with a particular operating system. On the other hand, there may be versions of an
operating system for several different computers. Ideally, t hen, the same application
program could be run on various computers, provided they all had the same operating
system; in practice some modification is often necessary. The microprocessor
recognizes a limited repertory of instructions, each of which must be presented as a
pattern of binary digits. For example, one pattern might tell the processor to load a
value from the primary memory into the internal register called an accumulator and
another pattern might tell the machine to add two numbers already prese nt in the
accumulator. It is possible to write a program in this "machine language", but the
process is tedious and likely to result in many errors.
The next-higher level of abstraction is an "assembly" language, in which symbols
and words that are more easily remembered replace the patterns of binary digits. The
instruction to load the accumulator might be represented LOADA and the instruction
to add the contents of the accumulator might be simply ADD. A program called an
assembler recognizes each such mnemonic instruction and translates it into the
corresponding binary pattern. In some assembly languages an entire sequence of
instructions can be defined and called up by name. A program written in assembly
language, however, must still specify individually each operation to be carried out by
the processor; furthermore, the programmer may also have to keep track of where in
the machine each instruction and each item of data is stored.
A high-level language relieves the programmer of having to adapt a procedur e to
the instruction set of the processor and to take into account the detailed configuration
of the hardware. Two quantities to be added can simply be given names, such as X
and Y. Instead of telling the processor where in primary memory to find the value s to
be added, the programmer specifies the operation itself, perhaps in the form X+Y.
The program, having kept a record of the location ofthe two named variables,
generates a sequence of instructions in machine language that causes the values to be
loaded into the accumulator and added.
TEXT 16
• Skim the passage and answer the questions:
/ . What high-level languages are mentioned in the text? 2.
What is the choice of a language based on?
101
There are two broad classes of programs, called interpreters and compilers, that
translate into machine code a program written in a higher language. A program
written in an interpreted language is stored as a sequence of high -level commands.
When the program is run, a second program (the interpreter itself) translates each
command in turn into the appropriate sequence of machine -language instructions,
which arc executed immediately. With a compiler the entire translation is completed
before execution begins. An interpreter has the advantage that the result of each
operation can be seen individually. A compiled program, on the other hand, generally
runs much faster since the translation into machine language has already been done.
Fortran was one of the earliest high -level languages and is now available in
several versions (or dialects). Fortran programs are compiled; their main applications
are in the sciences and mathematics. The most widely employed high -level language
for personal computers is Basic, which was developed in the 1960's by workers at
Dartmouth College. Basic was originally intended as an introductory language for
students of computer programming, but it is now employed for applications of all
kinds. Most versions of Basic are interpreted. There are dozens of other high -level
languages that can be executed by a minicomputer. The choice of a language fora
particular program is often based on the nature of the problem being addressed; the
language called Lisp, for example, is favoured by many investigators of artificial
intelligence. Considerations of personal programming style also have an influence;
the language Pascal has been gaining popularity in recent years because it is said to
encourage the writing of programs whose underlying structure is clear and can be
readily understood.
TEXT 17
• Examine the output media presented in the scheme below, then read the passage
and say which of them are mentioned in the text.
output
monitors
.visual display
TV screen
manual
thermal
*■ printers
■> dot-matrix
typewriter —► daisy-wheel
> printed
voice (speech)
OUTPUT
The primary output medium for a personal computer is a visual display, usually on
a cathode-ray tube: either a monitor or the purchaser's own television screen. Flat panel displays that exploit liqui d-crystal or gas-discharge technology are beginning to
be competitive, particularly for small, portable systems. The character images needed
for the display of text arc stored as patterns of dots in a special ROM called a
character generator. The clarity of the text depends on the number of dots employed
in forming each character. A typical monitor can display 24 lines of text, each line of
which has a maximum of 80 characters.
The display of graphic images, whether they are engineering drawings, graphs or
moving targets in a video game, calls for complex software and for large amounts of
memory. A detailed drawing or a smooth curve on a graph requires a high -resolution
image. Resolution is determined by the number of pixels (picture elements) that can
be addressed by the computer. A 280 -by-192-pixel image in black and white fills
more than 50 kilobits of RAM capacity, whereas a 128 -by-48 image needs only about
six kilobits. Many personal computers can generate images in colour, which can raise
the memory requirement by a factor of four or more. A high -resolution image,
particularly one in colour, can be displayed on a monitor.
For many purposes a printed copy of the computers output is desirable. There arc
a number of different kinds of printer, which vary wi dely in price, speed and the
quality ofthe text they turn out. Thermal printers, which cost less than $ 500, burn an
image into a special paper at a rate of some 50 characters per second. Dot-matrix
printers cost between $ 400 and $ 1,500 and can be very fast: as many as 200
characters per second. An array of from five to 18 tiny wires is swept across the
paper. Signals from the computer drive the wires against the inked ribbon, leaving a
pattern of dots on the paper. The quality ofthe characters thus forme d depends largely
on the size of the dot matrix available for each character; the array of dots is
commonly either five by seven or seven by nine. With suitable control programs and
enough memory capacity the dot -matrix printer can generate images in black and
white or in colour.
Most thermal and dot-matrix printers generate text that is readable but hardly
elegant. "Letterquality" printing calls for more expensive devices more closely related
to a typewriter. One such device is the daisy-wheel printer, which costs at least $ 750
and can print up to 55 characters per second. The printing head is a rotating hub with
96 radial arms or more, each arm carrying a letter or other character. As the daisy
wheel moves across the paper, signals from the computer spin the wheel and actuate a
hammer that drives the proper arm against the inking ribbon.
102
TEXT 18
•
Skim the passage and answer the following questions:
/ . Where is the machine applied?
2. Does it really have animal instincts?
3. What rules provide these instincts?
A MACHINE WITH AN INSTINCT FOR SURVIVAL
A scientist from Boston, Massachusetts, claims to have built the first commercial
machine endowed with instincts, or common sense, of an animal. Such a machine is
the ultimate goal of scientists working to give computers ar tificial intelligence. It is
also a key development if such systems arc to be applied usefully.
Regardless of how clever a computer is at guiding an airoplane, for example, it
could still crash the plane if somebody feeds it incorrect information. This is because
the airoplane's software does not contain the "knowledge" that crashing is
undesirable.
Ed Fredkin, a former director of the Laboratory for Computer Science at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, aims to produce computers whose design is
governed by this basic, but overriding concept of self -preservation. He describes this
as giving the computer "machine instinct".
TEXT 19
•
Read the text and give your opinion on the problem.
oddity n странность, чудаковатость gauge [geidsJ v
измерять, проверять размер fluke lflu:k] n
счастливая случайность sift v просеивать
ironclad а жесткий, твердый, нерушимый
ARE THERE FINAL INDIVISIBLE
CONSTITUENTS OF MATTER?
Physicists are excited, once again, about a potential conflict with the Stan dard
Model of Particle Physics. Measurements ofthe behaviour of neutrinos, made by a
team at the Fermilab in Batavia, Illinois, suggest that the Standard Model may
misgauge the strength of one ofthe fundamental forces of nature. Although not
conclusive, the results might signify an undiscovered particle or an experimental
fluke.
103
The Fermilab experiment measured '9w ("theta -sub-w"), a quantity called the
weak mixing angle. Although not an angle in the ordinary sense, 8w smells like one to
a mathematician. Roughly speaking, it measures the relation between electromagnetic
and weak forces: Different values of 0w yield different pictures about the relative
strengths of the forces at different energies.
Unlike a similar-sounding quantity called the neutrino mixing angle, which
determines the properties of neutrinos {Science, 2 November, p. 987) Ow measures a
fundamental force of nature, something that is fully accounted for in the Standard
Model.
So, when the Fermilab researchers measured 0w using neutrinos produced by the
Tevatron accelerator, they didn't expect to see anything unusual. The Tevatron
produced powerful protons, then slammed them into a beryllium -oxide target,
producing kaons and pions with various charges. Using magnets, the scientists sifted
these particles, picking out varieties that would decay and produce either neutrinos or
antineutrinos. They then compared how the resulting neutrinos and antineutrinos
interacted with a 700-ton steel detector. The neutrinos and antineutrinos have
different spin states and thus arc affected differently by the weak force-and 6w. By
comparing the neutrinos behavior with that ofthe antineutrinos, the team figured out
the size of 0w.
The result surprised them. The measured value of 0w disagreed with what the
Standard Model predicts by three standard deviations — "three sigma". "A three-sigma
result is interesting; it gets people's attention," says Kevin McFarland, a physicist at
the University of Rochester in New York state and member of the Fermilab team.
In particle physics, such a result is usually considered provocative but not
ironclad. But McFarland is sanguine. "I spent the last 8 years of my career making
one measurement," he says, and after thorough checking and recheckingthe conflict
with the Standard Model remained.
If real, the anomaly might be caused by an undiscovered particle such as a
hypothetical new carrier of the weak force called Z'("Z - prime"), says Jens Erler, a
physicist at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia. "The [Fermilabl
experiment is not explained by Z', but helped," he says. When combined with another
recent intriguing but not inconclusive result in atomic physics, says Erler, it is
"almost crying forZ'."
But doubts will remain until new experiments can shed more light on the
situation. "Three sigma can easily be a fluke," says Erler. "But we take it seriously
enough to have a really close look."
Science, 16 November 2001
VOCABULARY
СОКРАЩЕНИЯ
n — noun — существительное v —
verb — глагол a — adjective —
прилагательное adv — adverb —
pron — pronoun — местоимение cj
— conjunction — союз пит —
numeral — числительное prep —
наречие
preposition — предлог
UNIT 1
abundant lo'bAiidantl а имеющийся
в изобилии afford [a'foid j v (быть в
состоянии)
позволить себе annihilate [o'naialcitj v
уничтожать article ['a;tiki] n предмет
(торговли) assault |a'so:lt| n нападение,
атака,
штурм
augment [o:g'mentJ v увеличивать(ся);
усиливать(ся) avalanche I'aevolanf] n
лавина bind I'bamd] v связывать blanket
['blterjkit| v покрывать
(одеИЛОМ) blessing I'blcsirjJ n
благословение blueprint I'blutpnnt] n
наметка; проект,
план
caution ('ko:jh[ n осторожность
challenge |'tjas1ind3] n сложная задача,
проблема; вызов; v бросать вызов
clothe [kloudj уодевать
community |k3'mju:niti] я 1. община; 2.
thee, общество
conceive Iksn'srv] v постигать,
понимать; представлять себе
concern [кэп'вэт] п забота, беспокойство
constellation [.knnsta'leijn] п созвездие
curse [ko:s] п проклятие
dazzle I'daezl] vослеплять блеском,
великолепием destiny ['destini] п судьба
elaborate [i'la;b3nt| «тщательно
разработанный; сложный eliminate
fI'hmmeit| уустранять,
исключать (from); ликвидировать
endeavour |in'dcvo] п попытка;
старание
enterprise ['entapraiz] п I . предприятие;
2. предприимчивость, инициатива
exaggeration |ig ,zaed33'rerjh] п преувеличение
fate [feit] п судьба
feed ffi:d] упитать(ся), кормить(ся)
foresee [fb:'si:] v (foresaw, foreseen)
предвидеть
harm [hu:m] n 1. вред, ущерб; 2. зло,
обида
heap [hi:p| n груда, куча; v нагромождать;
накапливать
goal [goul) n цель; задача
grasp [grasp) v охватить; понять
impact ['impasktl n толчок, импульс
inconceivable [.inkan'siivabl] а непостижимый, невообразимый
incredible [in'kredibl] а неправдоподобный, невероятный
innovation l.ina'veijhl n нововведение,
новшество; новаторство
installation |,inst3'leijh| n установка; pi
сооружение
mere [гшэ| а простой; merely adv только;
просто
opinion [э'р1шэп1 я мнение; public о.
общественное мнение
outcome fautkAm) п результат, исход
pay [per] v платить
plumb [pUm] v вскрывать; проникать
вглубь (тайны) poll Ipoul] п
голосование price [praisj п цена prior
['ргаю] to prep до pursue [pa'sju:] v
преследовать,
гнаться
root [ru :t] n корень; v пускать корни,
укореняться
rush |глП vбросаться; мчаться, нестись
shake Lfcikj v (shook, shaken) трясти,
встряхивать slide [slid] v (slid)
скользить target ['tcugit] n цель,
мишень threaten |'0retn| v грозить,
угрожать tool |tu:l| n 1. рабочий
инструмент;
2. орудие trend [trend] n общее
направление, тенденция; v
отклоняться, склоняться в каком-л.
направлении truth [tru:G] п правда,
истина virtually I'vartjugli] adv
фактически,
в сущности vital [Vaitl] а
жизненный; насущный,
существенный voyage ['vDiid3] п
плавание, морское путешествие; v
плавать, путешествовать (по морю)
UNIT 2
ardour ['cuds] п жар, рвение, пыл avail
[a'vcill п польза, выгода; v быть
полезным, выгодным; помогать
conviction [kan'vikjhl п убеждение decay
|di'kei] п разложение, распад;
упадок; v гнить, разлагаться;
приходить в упадок, распадаться
decline [di'klain] п падение, упадок;
v приходить в упадок, ухудшаться;
уменьшаться, идти на убыль;
спадать
diminish ]di'miniTJ уумепьшать(ся);
убавлять; ослаблять
drain [drein| v 1. дренировать, осушать;
2. спекать; опоражнивать
enforce [in'fas] v 1. оказывать давление,
принуждать; 2. усиливать
expense [iks'pens] п трата, расход; цена;
at the expense of за счет чего-л., ценой
чего-л.
haughty ['horti] а надменный, высокомерный
hostile |'hDstail| a (to) враждебный justice
|'d3AStis] п справедливость misery
I'mizori] п I. невзгода,
несчастье; страдание; 2. нищета,
бедность
missile I'misail | п ракета, реактивный
снаряд
peevish |*p>i:viJ~J а сварливый, раздражительный
plague Ipleig] п 1. бедствие; бич; 2.
неприятность; досада; 3. чума; v 1.
насылать бедствие, мучить; 2.
досаждать, беспокоить
prejudice |'pred3udis] п 1. предрассудок;
предубеждение; 2. ушерб
prevail [pn'veil] v I. преобладать,
господствовать, превалировать;
2. превозмогать, одолевать;
3. быть распространенным
prevent [pn'vent] v 1. предотвращать,
предохранять, предупреждать; 2.
мешать, препятствовать
pride |praid] п гордость
purify I'pjuanfai] v (of, from)
очишать(ся) от чего-л.
resent fri'zcnt| v негодовать, возмущаться; обижаться
reverse [ri 'v3:s] а обратный, противоположный; v перевертывать
slur [sla:] п пятно (парепутации)
snuff [sn\f] v нюхать
sweep [swi:p] узд. мести, подметать;
чистить, прочищать
viable I'vaiabl] а жизнеспособный
waste |wcist| п отбросы, отходы; а
лишний, ненужный; отработан ный
weapon ['wepan] п оружие wisdom
I'wizdam] п мудрость
UNIT 3
acid I'aesid] п кислота; nucleic а.
нуклеиновая кислота alarm [a'lcr.m]
п сигнал тревоги; a. bell
набат, набатный колокол cancer
I'kasnsa] п мед. рак carbon ]'ka:bon | п
углерод cell |sel I « клетка compound
I'kompaund] n смесь,
состав; соединение hole [houl] n
дыра, дырка intensify [ln'tensifai]
уусиливать(ся) intercept [,into'sept| v 1.
перехватить; 2.
105
прервать, отрезать; преградить путь
melanoma [,те1э'поитэ| n опухоль
protein ['prouti:n| n белок
release |n'li:sj v I. (from) освобождать,
избавлять; 2. отпускать; сбрасывать
repair [n'pto]
, ремонтировать,
исправлять
severe [si'vio] а строгий, суровый;
жестокий; тяжелый
skin [skin] п кожа
spread [spred] v I. развертывать(ся),
простирать(ся); 2. распространяться), разносить(ся)
УЧИНИТЬ
выраженный;ясный
shrink Lfnnk] v (shrank, shrunk) сокращаться; садиться (о материи)
smooth [smu.dj a 1. гладкий, ровный; 2.
плавный, спокойный; v сглаживать
tight [tait] а плотный, компактный;
сжатый
UNIT 6
abyss laTJis] п бездна, пучина
accumulate [a'kjuimjuleit] v накапливаться), аккумулировать(ся)
advantage |3d'va:ntid3] п преимущеUNIT 4
accompany [э'клтрлш] v сопровождать,
сопугствовать aggregate ['tcgngitj п
совокупность assume |a'sju:m] v
предполагать,
допускать;syn. presume [pn'zju:m]
assumption la 'sAmpJn] n предположение
clarify ['klaenfaij v вносить ясность
coalesce [,kouo'les| vсрастаться,
объединяться coalescence [.kouo'lcsnsl n
объединение, смешение compose
[кэт'рои/.| ^составлять confirm
[кэпТэлп] v подтверждать,
утверждать confirmation l.konfo'meijon]
n утверждение, подтверждение
conjecture | ksn'dsektjbj n догадка,
предположение; v предполагать,
гадать
contain Ikan 'tein] v содержать в себе,
вмещать dimension |di'menJon] n
измерение,
размеры, величина disperse [dis'pa:s|
v распространять,
разбрасывать, рассеивать distribute
|dis'tribju:t] v распределять,
разбрасывать distribution n
распространение emerge [i 'ni3:d,3| v
появляться emergence Ii'mo:d3onsI n
появление enormous |i'nsmos] а
громадный,
огромный establish |is'tteblij] v
основывать,
создавать, заложить
even а одинаковый, ровный,
на одном уровне evenly I'i.vonlij adv
ровно, равномерно evidently ['evidontli]
adv очевидно,
ясно
explode [iks'ploudj евзрывать(ся)
explosion |iks'plou3an] n взрыв fraction
I'fraekfon] n часть, доля multiple
['rriAltipl ] а многочисленный,
составной; мат. кратный origin
['Drid3in] n источник, начало original
|3'rid3innlJ а первоначальный originate
[s'rid^incitl v давать начало,
порождать, возникать (from, in)
preoccupy |pri;'Dkjupai] v занять; syn.
occupy |'okjupai| reveal [n'vi:l] v
открывать, показывать, обнаруживать
select [si'lekt] v выбирать, отбирать
UNIT 5
attitude
f'ajtitju:dj
n
позиция;
отношение bind [baind| v (bound)
связывать;
привязывать cluster I'kUstsJ n I. группа;
2. скопление, сгусток; 3. концентрация
compact Ikam'psekt] а компактный,
плотный; vсжимать, уплотнять
deviate |'di:vieit] уотклоняться,
уклоняться diverge [dai'vsid^l v
расходиться;
отклоняться, уклоняться flat |flaetj а
плоский, ровный glue |glu:| п клей
homogeneity (,h3moud33'ni:itij п
однородность insist [in'sist| v (on) 1.
настаивать
на чём-л., настойчиво угверждать;
2. настойчиво требовать instant
['instant] п мгновение, момент;
а настоятельный; немедленный,
безотлагательный manifestation
^macnifes'teijn] п 1. проявление; 2.
манифестация obtain [sb'tem | v
существовать; иметь
силу, быть действенным pronounced
[pro'naunst| а резко
ство; выгода, польза
apparently [a'paerantli] adv очевидно,
по-видимому
assert [a'sat] v 1. утверждать, заявлять;
2. отстаивать, защищать; доказывать
aware [a'wea] a predic сознающий;
знающий, осведомленный; to be а.
of знать, сознавать, отдавать себе
полный отчет в чем-л.
blast [blast] п зд. взрыв
bubble [тмЫ] п 1. пузырь; 2. пузырек
воздуха или газа (в жидкости)
catch [kaetf] v (caught) ловить, поймать, схватить; (up) 1. поднять,
подхватить; 2. догнать; 3. прервать
cell [sel] п 1. ячейка; 2. клетка
cellular ['seljuta] а клеточный; ячеистый, сотообразный; пористый
collapse [ka'laeps] п 1. разрушение; 2.
осадка, оседание; 3. заклепывание
(пузырьков жидкости); астро-физ.
коллапс; v коллапсировать
comb [koum] п соты
compression [kam'prejh]
п сжатие;
уплотнение
conform [кэпТэ:т| усообразовать(ся);
согласоваться); соответствовать
constituent [kan'stitjuant] п 1. составляющий часть целого; 2. составная
часть
conventional [ksn'venjsnal] а условно
принятый, условный; общепринятый, обычный, обычного типа
destroy [di'stroi] v уничтожать,
истреблять; разрушать
discrepancy [dis'krepansi] п 1. разногласие, противоречие; расхождение; 2.
различие, несходство
dot [dDtj п 1. точка; 2. крошечная вещь
embed [im'bed] v встраивать, вставлять, вводить, внедрять; погружать
entire [in'taiaj а 1. полный, совершенный; 2. целый, цельный, сплошной
ever ['evs] adv всегда; for е. навсегда;
вечно
evolve [iVolv] v 1. развивать(ся),
эволюционировать; 2. разрабатывать (теорию); 3. выделять (газы)
extent [ik'stent] п \ . протяжение,
размер; 2. степень, мера
flood [fUdj п поток; прилив; v затоплять, наводнять; хлынуть потоком,
устремиться
honey ['
п мел; h. comb соты
inevitable [in'evitsbl] а неизбежный,
неминуемый
negligible |'neglid33bl] а незначительный;
пренебрежимо малый
persist [ps'sist] v упорствовать,
настойчиво продолжать
pierce [pias] v 1. (through, into) пронзать,
проникать; 2. прорываться, проходить сквозь (что-л.); 3. разгадывать
(тайну)
prolong [prs'brjj v продлить, продолжить
universe ['jir.nivsisl п мир, вселенная;
космос
Н АШ
]
UNIT 7
cease [sirs] v переставать, прекращаться); приостанавливать; without
с. непрестанно
contraction [ksn'trsekfn] п сжатие,
сужение; уплотнение, стягивание;
уменьшение; упрочение; сокращение
damp [daemp| v демпфировать;
106
заглушать; амортизировать essence
['esns] п сущность, существо;
in е. по существу
evaporate [iVeepareil] v I. выпаривать,
сгущать; 2. испарять(ся)
chaos I'keiDs] n хаос
inflate [in'fleit] v нааувать(ся); накачивать;
вздувать(ся)
outburst ['autbast] n I. взрыв; 2. вспышка,
всплеск
reconcile I'reksnsail) ^примирять(ся);
улаживать
relevant ['relivant] а уместный,
относящийся к делу
resolution [,гегэ'1и:Гп] n 1. решение;
2. разрешение (проблемы); 3. разложение на составные части, анализ
resolve [n'zolv) п решение; v 1. решать,
принимать решение; 2. побуждать;
3. разрешать (сомнения и т.п.)
scarcely j'skessli] adv 1. едва, как только; только что; 2. едва (не); едва ли,
вряд л и
seed [si:d] п I. семя, зерно; 2. зародыш,
начало (чего-л.)
span [spaen] п I. (короткий) промежуток
времени, период времени; 2. короткое
расстояние
swallow ['
глотать, проглатывать;
s. up поглощать
transition [traen'zifan] п переход,
перемещение
turnover ['torn.ouva] п I. оборот; 2. точка
перехода
unravel [\n'raev3l| v 1. распутывать; 2.
разгадывать; объяснять
SWDI OU] V
UNIT 8
creature ['krr.tfa] п 1. создание, творение;
2. живое существо
[di'speo] п отчаяние, безнадежность
encompass [in'kAmpssJ v окружать,
заключать
eternal [i'ta:nl] а I. вечный; неизменный; 2.
беспрерывный, постоянный
outward ['auiwod] а I. внешний, наружный, поверхностный; 2. направленный
наружу; 3. видимый
power I'pauo] п мат. степень; p. law
степенной закон
startling ['sta:tlir)l а потрясающий,
поразительный surplus |'s3:pl3s] п
излишек, остаток;
а излишний, избыточный
despair
UNIT 9
ability [a'biliti] п способность
accident ['teksidant] п случай, авария
accidental [.seksi'dentl] о случайный
affect [o'fekt] v действовать, воздействовать, влиять (на)
amount [a'mauntl п количество; v соста&тять, достигать, доходить до (to)
case п 1. случай; 2. дело
complete [k3m'pli:t| v заканчивать, завершать; а полный, законченный
completely [ksm'pliitliJ adv совершенно,
полностью
compound ['kompaund] n соединение; а
составной, сложный
considerable [kan'sidorobll а значительный, важный
develop [di'velsp] v (id.) проявлять
discover Idis 'kAva] v узнавать, обнаруживать, открывать
discovery n открытие
effect [i'fektj n влияние (на), следствие,
результат; in е. в действительности, в
сущности
excitement [ik'saitrmnt] п возбуждение
external [ek'sO:nl| а наружный, внешний;
syn. exterior [ek'stianol; ant. intrinsic
[in'tnnsik] а внутренний; n внутренняя
сторона, внутренность
invisible [in'vizsblj а невидимый, незаметный; ant. visible видимый, явный
mysterious |mis'tioriDs] о таинственный,
непостижимый
mystery ['mistan] n тайна
opaque |ou'peik] а непрозрачный, •
светонепроницаемый, темный
oxidation |,oksi'deiJon| n окисление
oxide ['oksaid] n окись, окисел
penetrate I'penitreit] v проникать внутрь;
проходить, пронизывать
pitchblende ['pitjblend| яураний, урановая
руда
property ('ргарэп] п свойство, количество
pure [pjua| а чистый, беспримесный
rate n скорость, интенсивность; at a r.
of... со скоростью, равной...
rest v находиться, оставаться
rule out v исключать
take into account учитывать, принимать во внимание
transform [transform] v преобразовывать, превращать
transformation превращение,
преобразование
because of prep из-за, вследствие; syn.
due to, owing to
UNIT 10
according (to)prep в соответствии с,
согласно, по accordingly adv
соответственно;
в соответствии approach [a'proutf] п
подход, метод;
v подходить, приближаться к
artificial [.ati'fijsl] а искусственный
attract [s'traekt] v притягивать capture
п захват, улавливание;
v захватывать, улавливать chip off v
отщеплять comprehensive
[,kDmpn'hensiv]
а обширный, исчерпывающий eject
[I'd^ekt] v испускать, выбрасывать
ejection п испускание, выброс
emission [I'mijbn] п эмиссия,
испускание, излучение emit [I'mit] v
испускать, излучать excess [ik'ses] п
избыток; а избыточный, добавочный
excessive [ik'sesiv] а избыточный
fission [Tifn] п деление, расщепление;
у делиться, расщепляться fluid |'flu:rd]
п текучая среда, жидкость, газ; а
текучий, жидкий, газообразный hinder
['hinds] v мешать, препятствовать
impact ['impsekt] п 1. удар, толчок,
столкновение; 2. влияние, воздействие
incidence ['insidons| п падение, наклон
incident ['insidant] а зд. падающий
interpret [in 't3:pnt| v объяснять,
толковать
interpretation [inTsipn'teifonl п объяснение, толкование
issue I'isju:, tJu:| п (зд.) выпуск,
издание
liberate I'libareitl у освобождать,
выделять
liberation [.hba'reijn] п выделение,
отдача, потеря, выход
oppose [э'роиг] у противопоставлять
opposing й противоположный
ordinary ['ardinri] а обычный, обыкновенный, простой
particular [ps'tikjuls] а особый,
определенный; in р. = particularly
adv в частности, в особенности
possess [ps'zes] у обладать
previous I'prirvjas] а предыдущий,
предшествующий
previously adv ранее, предварительно
projectile [pr3'd3ektail| n зд. налетающая, бомбардирующая частица
ratio ['reijiou] пмат. отношение,
пропорция
release [n'Ii;s] п освобождение,
высвобождение; v выпускать
repulse [n 'pAlsl vотталкивать; п
отражение
repulsion [п'рл1/эп] п отталкивание;
am. attraction [s'traekjbnj п
притяжение
resolution [.rezo'lofnl п решение,
разрешение
sample ['sampl] п образец, проба,
выборка
split v расщеплять, раскалывать,
разрушать
UNIT 11
107
accelerate [ak'selireit] уускорять(ся)
agree [s'gri:] усогласовывать(ся);
совпадать agreement [s'griimsnt] n
совпадение,
согласие
apart from кроме, помимо, не считая;
syn. in addition to attach [s'taetf] v
присоединять,
закреплять bend v (bent)
изгибать(ся) bulky ['b\lki] а большой,
громоздкий
cloud chamber камера Вильсона
collide [ko'laid) v ст&чкиваться
collision [кэ '|1зэп| n столкновение
composite |'kDmpozit| а сложный,
составной
consideration [ksn.sido'reijh] n соображение, рассмотрение, обсуждение;
to take into с. принимать во
внимание
correspond [.kon'spDnd] v соответствовать (with, to)
corresponding а соответственный
decay [di'kei] n распад, превращение; v
распадаться
develop [di'vebp] v разрабатывать,
конструировать
development [di'velapmant] n разработка
(теории)
establish [is'toeblij] vосновывать,
создавать, устанавливать
exclude [ik'sklir.d] v исключать, не
допускать; ant. include включать
exploration [ekspb'rerfsn] n исследование
fine-grained а мелкозернистый;
высокодисперсный fringe [frmd3| n
край, граница grain n зерно
humid |'hjii:mid| а влажный
instead [m'sted] adv вместо, взамен (of)
intermediate [,int3'mi:djot] а промежуточный, средний
interrelation [intsri'leifon] n взаимоотношение, соотношение
interstellar [.inta'stels| space межзвездное пространство
introduce [.intra'djirs] i> вводить,
вставлять (into)
introduction [^ntrs'dAkJbnl n
введение
outer ['auts] а внешний
predict [pn'dikt] v предсказывать
prediction n предсказание
presence I 'prezns] присутствие,
н&чичие
reach v достигать
sequence ['srkwsns] n последовательность, ряд, чередование; in s.
порядок следования, ряд
similar похожий, подобный, сходный
streak [stri:k| п полоска, прожилка
stream п поток
subsequent ['sAbsikwantj а последующий
surface ['sa:fis| п поверхность
Й
due to из-за, вследствие; syn. owing to,
because of due а надлежащий: to be
d. to быть
обу сл о вл е п п ы м, обу сл о вл и ва i
ьс я
UNIT 12 achieve
|o'tjlivj v достигать achievement п
достижен ие afford la'fad] v позволять
себе,
давать, предоставлять average
['sevand3] о средний cause [ky.z\ v
вызывать, служить
причиной chain п цепь, цепочка; а
цепной;
ch. reaction цепная реакция dilute
|dai'lu:t] v разбавлять, разводить;
а разведенный, разбавленный,
слабый
except [ik'sept[prep за исключением,
кроме (for) former, the первый (из
двух названных);
ant. latter, the второй, последний
graphite I'grtefait] п графит include
[in'klu:d] vвключать lose v (lost) терять
loss n потеря
maintain [mein'tein] v поддерживать,
сохранять, содержать в исправно-
сти, обслуживать, эксплуатиро вать;
self-maintaining а самоподдерживаюшийся
maintainance ['meintinsnsl п обслуживание, уход, содержание в исправ ности, эксплуатация
mean v (meant) значить, означать
occur [э'кэ:] v случаться, происходить;
syn. take place
pile n 1. куча, груда, множество,
масса; 2. ядерный реактор (atomic,
nuclear p.)
purify ['pjusnfai] v очищать от чего-л.
SD:S]
(of, from)
source [
n источник
succession [ssk'sejon] n последовательность, непрерывный ряд
successive |s3k'sesiv| а последующий,
последовател ы i ы й
utilize ['julilaiz] v использовать
give rise to = to result in приводить к
чему-л., давать что-то в результате
in question (лицо, вопрос) о котором
идет речь;.у«. involved, concerned
UNIT 13
abrupt [s 'brApt] а скачкообразный;
резкий; внезапный bang [Ьшп| n
взрыв; big b. большой
взрыв
collide
[ka'laidl
v
сталкиваться
contemporary [kon'tempsreril a
1. современный; 2. одновременный
convince Ikon'vmsj vубеждать
dozen I 'dAznl n 1. дюжина;
2. множество
drastic L'draestik] а решительный;
крутой (о мерах); d. changes
коренные изменения duplicate
I'djir.plikeit] v 1. снимать
копию; 2. удваивать fairly [
adv
довольно; сносно;
весьма
freeze [fri :z| v (froze, frozen)
замерзать; морозить, замораживать
heaven ['hevn] n небо, небеса
identical [ai'dentikol] а тот же самый;
одинаковый
immense [I'mens] о безмерный,
необъятный; огромный
isolate ['aisaleit] v изолировать,
отделять, обособлять
presume [pn'zjir.m] v 1. предполагать;
считать доказанным; 2. upon (on)
слишком полагаться на что-л.
primordial [prai'madisl] а изначальный, исконный
rather |'га;5э] adv скорее, предпочтительнее, лучше; г. than а не
spontaneous [spon'teinjasl а самопроизвольный
stuff [sUf] п материал, вещество
yield [ji:ld] v производить; приносить,
давать (плоды, урожай и т.д.)
UNIT 14
T MI I
]
appropriate [a'proupnit] а соответствующий, подходящий, уместный
aptly ['aeptli] adv 1 ■
соответствующим, надлежащим
образом; кстати; 2. быстро, легко,
умело
breakthrough I'breikOru:] я достижение, победа, эпохальное событие
ceramics [si 'rEemiks] п керамика
conceivable [kan'siivobl] а постижимый,
понятный, мыслимый, возможный
coolant ['ku:lont] п 1. охлаждающая
среда, охлаждающая жидкость; 2.
охладитель
costly I 'kDstli] а 1. дорогой; 2. ценный
cushion |'ки:/(э)п] п полушка, упругое
основание, прокладка
designate ['dezigneit] v 1. определять,
устанавливать; 2. обозначать,
называть
expensive [ik'spensiv] а дорогой,
дорогостоящий
fission |'м/(э)п] п расщепление, распад
frigid [Tnd3id] а холодный
fusion ['0и:,з(э)п] п плавление,
сплавление; 2. синтез, слияние
host [houst| п множество
I.
108
immensely [I'mensli] adv безмерно,
необъятно
[,impli'keij(3)n] п 1. вовлечение; 2. скрытый смысл, значение
incredible [m 'kredibl] а 1. неправдоподобный; 2. удивительный, неслыханный, потрясающий
involve [in 'vDlv] v 1. включать в себя,
содержать; 2. влечь за собой,
вызывать
'
liquefy f'likwifai] v превращаться) в
жидкость
maintain [mein'tein] v 1. поддерживать,
сохранять; 2. обслуживать
obstacle ['obstokl] п препятствие, помеха
occur [э'кэ:| v происходить, случаться,
иметь место; встречаться;
наблюдаться, присутствовать
гаге [геэ] а редкий, разреженный;
редкостный, исключительный
reward [n'wadj n награда, вознаграждение, премия
stubborn l'sUbon| а упрямый, неподатливый,
упорный
stumble I'sumbll v I. спотыкаться; 2.
запинаться; 3. случайно натыкаться
transition [traen'zij"(3 )n, traen'sij(3)n] я
процесс перехода из одного состояния в
другое
vaporize [Veiparaiz] v I, выпаривать,
испарять; 2. испарять(ся)
implication
UNIT 15
apparent [a'paaront] a I. видимый,
различимый; 2. явный, очевидный
coherence | ko(u)'hi3r (o)ns] я I. когерентность; 2. связность, последовательность
conventional [kon'venjanl] а обычный,
привычный, общепринятый,
традиционный, стандартный;
удовлетворяющий техническим
условиям
crucial l'kru:Jol] а 1. решающий; 2.
критический
currently ['клг.-mtli] adv в данное время, в
текущий момент
discard Jdis'kaid| v 1. отбрасывать,
отвергать, отказываться; 2. браковать,
списывать
encounter | in'kauntaj v 1. неожиданно
встретить; 2. наталкиваться (на
трудности и т.п.)
enhance |m'ha:ns| v 1. увеличивать,
усиливать; 2. повышать
extension [ik'stenf(3 )nl п I. растяжение,
расширение, удлинение; 2. распространение, развертывание; 3. протяженность; 4. продолжение, добавочная
часть, надставка
feature (ТгЛ|э| п I. особенность, черта;
характерное свойство, признак; 2.
микрообъект
gap я зазор, просвет, промежуток; щель,
интервал; energy g. запрещенная зона,
энергетическая щель, ширина
запрещенной зоны
glue [glu:] я клей
originate [3'nd3ineit] v I. давать начало,
порождать, создавать; 2. брать начало,
происходить
pair v спаривать
plasmon я плазмон (квант плазменных
колебаний)
scope [skoup] п 1. пределы, рамки, границы;
2. масштаб, размах
share |/еэ] v разделять; делить; принимать
участие, распределять
unravel |лп'гэеу(э)1] v 1. распутываться); 2.
разгадывать, объяснять
UNIT 16
alter ['эзЪ] v изменять(ся), менять(ся),
переделывать
alternating ['Diltaneitirj] p.p. переменный; а.
current переменный ток
annihilate [a'naialeit] v уничтожать, отменять
annihilation |3,nai3'lei.fn] я аннигиляция,
отмена
bond я связь; диффузионный слой
bonding я связь, соединение
complicate v усложнять
complicated ['kamplikeitid] а запутанный,
сложный
conduct [кэпУлИ] v проводить
conductive [kan'dAktivj а проводящий
conductivity [,kondAk'tiviti] я удельная
(электро)проводимость, электропроводность
conductor я проводник; ant. insulator
['insjuleita] я изолятор
deficiency
[di'fijansi]
п
недостаток,
отсутствие; syn. lack [laek] п (of)
отсутствие, недостаток
deficient а недостаточный, недостающий,
неполный
hole п дырка, отверстие; а дырочный
impurity [im'pjuariti] я примесь, загрязнение,
включение
insulate v изолировать
interface ['intafeis] я граница раздела; а
граничный, межфазный
junction fdjMikJsn] п соединение, стык,
узел, переход (в полупроводнике)
lattice ['laetis] я решетка
mobile |'moubaiI| а подвижный,
движущийся
mobility [mou'bilm | n подвижность,
мобильность; holem. дырочная
подвижность
mutual I'mjirtjusl] а взаимный, общий,
совместный
neighbour ['neibo] n сосед, соседний
объект, соседняя часть
neighbouring а соседний
occupied а занятый; ant. vacant
I'veiksntI свободный, вакантный
occupy
I'DkjupaiJ
v
занимать,
заполнять
prevent [pn'vent] v мешать, подавлять,
препятствовать
proper ['ргэрэ] а I. собственный, в
собственном смысле; 2. надлежащий, должный, соответствуюищй,
подходя ший
rectification |,rektifi'keijn] п выпрямление
rectifier/? выпрямитель rectify
I'rektifai] v выпрямлять replace
[n'pleis] v заменять replacement n
замещение, замена reverse |nV3:s] v
изменять на обратное,
реверсировать semiconductor
l.semiksn 'dAkts] n
полупроводник supply [so'plai ] v
питать, подавать, доставлять,
подводить; я питание, подача,
снабжение thermal ['9э:тэ1] а
термический, тепловой; th. agitation
тепловое перемешивание, тепловое
движение wire ['waio] п провод,
проволока; v проводить
UNIT 17
alter ['э:Иэ] v 1. изменять, переделывать, менять; 2. видоизменять,
вносить изменения
approximate [a'proksimit] (/приблизительный, приблизительно точный
constraint [kon'streint] п 1. принуждение; 2. реакция связи
distinct [dis'tirjkt| а 1. ясный, явственный, отчетливый; 2. определенный,
явный
embrace | im'brcisj v включать, заключать в себе, охватывать
exact |ig'zaakt j а I.точный; 2. строгий
except for [ ik'sept] prep за исключением,
кроме, если бы не
explicit | ik'splisit] о ясный, точный,
определенный
familiar Ifs'miljal я близкий, хорошо
знакомый
glance п: at a glance [ylu:ns| с первого
взгляда
hadron ['haedron] яадрон, сильно взаимодействующая (элементарная) частица
integer I'mtidp] п целое число
intermediate [,into'mi :dJ3t| а промежуточный, переходный; v замещать,
переставлять, чередовать, обмениваться)
modest I 'mDdist] а умеренный,
небольшой, ограниченный
109
multiple [Wltipl] п кратное, кратное
число, кратная величина
pattern |'paet(3 )nj п фшура, картина,
система полос; узор; образец,
модель, форма; характеристика,
диаграмма
perceive |p3 'si:v| v понимать, осознавать, постигать; различать,
оигушать, чувствовать
rather ['га:дэ| than скорее чем; а не
remarkably |n'ma :kobli] adv замечательно, удивительно, необыкновенно, в высшей степени
respect п: with respect to что касается,
в отношении
responsible [ris'ponsobl] а ответственный; надежный; достойный; важный
retain | n'tein | v сохранять,
удерживать reverse |n 'v3 :s) v менять
(на противоположный), обращать,
переворачивать
rotation [ro(u)'tci /(3 )n] п вращение,
вращательное движение; поворот
snowflake ['snoufleik | л снежинка
spatial |'spei /(3)l| а пространственный
stringent I'stnndpnt] а строгий,
обязательный, точный
validity |va'hditi| n справедливость,
правильность, действительность,
применимость
UNIT 18
blank n техн. заготовка, болванка
designate I'dezigneitJ vопределять,
обозначать, указывать
distinct jdis'tir>kt | а отдельный, отличный
diversity |dai'vo:siti| n разнообразие,
многообразие, разнородность
embrace [im'brcis| v 1. обнимать; 2.
охватывать
fit v 1. соответствовать, годиться,
совпадать; 2. подгонять
gauge [geid3J п 1. мера, масштаб, размер,
калибр; 2. измерительный прибор; зд. g.
theory калибровочные теории поля или
градиентные полевые теории
incorporate [т'кл:рэгсК| v соединяться),
объсдинять(ся)
intertwine |,intri'twain 1 v сплетать(ся),
переплетаться)
invariant |in'veonnnt| п инвариант
lock [bk] п замок
perceive [pa'si:v| v воспринимать, понимать,
осознавать, постигать
quark [kwa.k, kwD:k] п кварк
reveal [n'vi:l] v I. открывать; 2. показывать,
обнаруживать
suffice |ss'fais] убыть достаточным, хватать
substantial [ssb'staDnfOlJ а существенный,
важный, значительный
trouble [тглЫ] v I. тревожить, волновать;
расстраивать; 2. беспокоить, мучить
worth [ws:G] п ценность, значение,
достоинство
UNIT 20
accomplish [э'кэтр!]/] v выполнять,
завершать
adjust [s'chy\st] v I. приводить в порядок; 2.
приспосабливать,
подгонять;
3.
регулировать, пробовать
attempt |3'tem(p)t] v пытаться, пробовать
augment [э-.g'mentj v увеличипать(ся),
прибавлять(ся)
avoid [a'vDid] v избегать, сторониться,
уклоняться
bend v (bent) гнуть(ся), изгибать(ся),
наклонять, поворачивать
boost v подталкивать, стимулировать
bunch п связка, пучок, группа, сгусток
cavity ['kteviti] п 1. (замкнутая) полость; 2.
(объемный) резонатор
chain [tjein] п цепь, цепочка; последовательность; связь, ход
cluster ['kUstal п сгусток (частиц)',
скопление, группа; пучок
curvature ['kaivatfsl п кривизна, изгиб
curve [ka:v| п кривая, характеристическая
кривая, график
emerge [I'morcfc] v появляться; выходить
(на поверхность); всплывать
ultimately [Altimitli] adv в конечном счете,
в конце концов
UNIT 19
accord [o'ko:d| п согласие, единство,
гармония alarming [o'lcumin | а
тревожный,
волнующий apparently [o'pairontli) adv
ятко,
очевидно, несомненно; видимо,
по-видимому arrange [3 'remd3| v
приводить
в порядок, располагать; размещать bear
|Ьсэ| v (bore, borne) нести;
иметь, обладать
charm п очарование, шарм
constituent Iksn'stitjuont] п составная часть,
элемент
conviction [kon'vikT(3 )n] п убеждение,
убежденность, взгляды
distinguish |dis'tirjgwif| v отличать,
различать; отделять, разделять
entity |'entiti| п реальность; нечто
объективно, реально существующее;
объект, единица структуры
evidence ['evid(o)ns] п основание, данные,
свидетельства, доказательство;
очевидность, явность
extend [iks'tend | у простираться, тянуться;
расширять, удлинять, распространять
generation [^зепэ'ге1/(э)п| л поколение
indivisible [.mdi'vizabl] а неделимый,
бесконечно малый
investment [m'vestmontJ п капиталовложение
justify ['d3AStifai] v оправдывать,
находить оправдание, подтверждать
list п список
расе [peis] п скорость, темп, шаг preceding
|pn'si:dirj] а предшествующий presumably
[pn'zjirmabli] adv возможно,
вероятно prevail |pri'vei 1J v преобладать,
быть
распространенным proliferation
|ргэ,1гПэ'ге||"(э)п] п количественный рост,
распространение recognize ['rekagnaizj v 1.
узнавать, опознавать; 2. осознавать;
3. выражать признание, пенить;
4. признавать
reconcile ['rekDnsail| v мирить, улаживать,
приводить в соответствие, согласовывать
status I'steitosj п существующее положение,
состояние
strangeness |'strcm(d)3nis| п странность
subsequent I'sAbsikwant | а 1. последующий, более поздний; 2. являющийся
результатом чего-л.
subsequently ['sAbsikwontli] adv впоследствии, затем, потом
employ [im'pbil v употреблять,
использовать, применять
extract [ik'straekt] v I. извлекать,
экстрагировать; 2. откачивать (газ)
gain п 1. усиление, коэффициент усиления;
2. выигрыш; приобретенное количество,
приращение
inject [in'd3ekt| v инжектировать; вводить
(частицы); впускать; впрыскивать,
инъецировать; вдувать
inner [тпэ] а внутренний
intersperse l.ints'spsis] v разбрасывать,
рассыпать, помещать, вкладывать что-л.
в промежугки
linac |'1шэк] «линейный ускоритель
line up v строить, выстраивать в линию, в
ряд; становиться, строиться,
выстраиваться
link п звено, связующее звено, связь
make up v 1. образовывать; 2. завершать,
оканчивать
merely ['miali ] adv только, просто,
единственно
outer ['auta] а внешний, наружный
precisely Ipn'saisli] аауточно, определенно
preliminary [pn'lim(i)n3n | а предварительный
raise [reizj v 1. поднимать; 2. повышать,
увеличивать
rectifier ['rektifaial п выпрямитель;
детектор
release [ri'li:s] v освобождать, выделять
(энергию)
110
|,rev3 'lu:J(3 )n] п вращение,
обращение, оборот
sequence ['si:kwons] п последовательность,
ряд; последствие, результат
shell п 1. оболочка; 2. снаряд
smoothly ['smu:61i| adv 1. гладко, ровно,
плавно; 2. хорошо; благополучно
strength [stregG] п I. сила; 2. напряженность (поля); 3. прочность
supply [ss'plai] v питать, подавать,
доставлять, снабжать
synchronize |'sinkronaiz| vсинхронизировать
trajectory ['traed3ikt(3 )n ] и траектория
revolution
CONTENTS
I.
PROGRESS AND SOCIETY ......... 4
INTRODUCTORY UNIT ...........
UNIT ONE .............. 8
E PASSIVE VOICE
UNITTWO............... 15
CPERFECTINFINITIVМОДАЛ
E Ы1Ы E ГЛАГОЛ Ы
UNITTHREE ............. 25
СЛ4МШЛ: THECOMPLEXSUBJECT WITH THE INFINITIVE
I . UNIVERSE
. 31
UNIT FOUR ..............
FUNCTIONS OFTHE INFINITIVE 31
UNIT FIVE ..............
PARTICIPLE (FORMSAND FUNCTIONS)38
UN IT SIX .............. 45
CONSTRUCTION TH E ABSOLUTE PARTICIPIAL
UN SEVEN ............. 53
INVERSION
UNIT EIGHT .............. 6 2
IE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
I I. C PARTIWORLD
OF
SUBATOMI
CLES..........
70
UNITNINE...............
7
0
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
U NIT TEN ............. 7
Part
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGICAL
4
GRAMMAR: TH
GRAMMAR:
Part
THE
PUZZLE
GRAMMAR:
GRAMMAR:
GRAMMAR:
IT
GRAMMAR:
GRAMMAR: Tl
Part
THE
GRAMMAR:
GRAM MAR: GERUND
UNIT ELEVEN ............. 84
GERUND
U NIT TWELVE ............ 93
GERUND
UNITTHIRTEEN ............ 101
/1/W/W :GERUND
GRAMMAR:
GRAMMAR:
<7ft
/l/f
Part IV. MODERN DISCOVERIES,
THEORIES
AND TECHNOLOGIES
...... 109
UNIT FOURTEEN ........... 109
GRAMMAR:
МЕСТОМ МЕН И E
ONE
UNIT FIFTEEN ............ 1 5
REVISION
UN IT SIXTEEN ............
1T2H THE
TI
I
E
COM
PLEX
OBJ
ЕСТ
WI
INFINITIVE
GRAMMAR:
GRAMMAR:
UNIT SEVENTEEN ........... 130
INFINITIVE
UNIT EIGHTEEN ........... 136
ГЛАГОЛ
UN1TNINETEEN ............ 14
CONSTRUCTION THE ABSOLUTE PARTICIPIAL
UMTTWF.NIY.............. 150
GRAMMAR:7HE
GRAMMAR:
WOULD
GRAMMAR:
GRAMMAR:.WOULD
В ПРИДАТОЧНЫХ 11РЕДЛОЖЕНИЯХ
...156156
TEXT
1
..............
TEXT
2...............
115568
TEXT
3
...............
TEXT
45...............
16508
TEXT
...............
1
TEXT
67...............
16621
TEXT
...............
1
TEXT
89...............
16653
TEXT
...............
1
TEXT
1011 ..............
11668
TEXT
..............
TEXT
1213 ..............
116790
TEXT
..............
TEXT
1415 ..............
17731
TEXT
..............
1
TEXT
1617 ..............
17754
TEXT
..............
1
TEXT
TEXT 1819 ..............
.............. 1177
SUPPLEMENTARY READING
VOCABULARY
........... 179