Download State of the art report on human pressure in the

O5.1 Report on the State of the Art
Of Human Pressures along the
Mediterranean Coast:
GREAT Med Study Areas
June 2015
This report was conducted in the context of the GREAT Med project. The project's partners
are: Sapienza University of Rome, (Italy), University of Saint-Joseph (Lebanon), University
of Sfax (Tunisia), IMBE–Aix-Marseille University (France), National Center for Scientific
Research and the American University of Beirut (Lebanon). The report was coordinated by the
American University of Beirut. It represents the output O5.1: “Report on the state of the art of
human pressures in the analyzed coastal areas".
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................................6
LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................................7
1.
INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................9
2.
MEDITERRANEAN COASTLINE ..............................................................................................10
2.1 Physical Characteristics .............................................................................................................10
2.2 Vulnerability ..............................................................................................................................11
2.2.1 Natural stressors.............................................................................................................11
2.2.2 Anthropogenic Stressors .................................................................................................12
2.3 Sources of Pollution...................................................................................................................15
2.3.1 Land-based sources ........................................................................................................15
2.3.2 Marine-based sources.....................................................................................................17
2.3.3 Physical alterations ........................................................................................................18
2.4 Synthesis ....................................................................................................................................19
3.
COAST OF BEIRUT – BYBLOS (LEBANON) ...........................................................................20
3.1 Physical Characterization ..........................................................................................................21
3.1.1 Coast Features ................................................................................................................21
3.1.2 Shoreline Typology .........................................................................................................21
3.1.3 Archeological, Sensitive and Protected Sites .................................................................22
3.2 Human Pressures .......................................................................................................................23
3.2.1 Agricultural Activities .....................................................................................................23
3.2.2 Urbanization ...................................................................................................................24
3.2.3 Tourism ...........................................................................................................................25
3.2.4 Industrial Facilities ........................................................................................................25
3.3 Environmental Pollution ............................................................................................................27
3.3.1 Land-based sources ........................................................................................................27
3.3.2 Marine-based sources.....................................................................................................28
3.3.3 Physical alterations ........................................................................................................29
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3.
COAST OF PROVENCE (FRANCE) ...........................................................................................30
4.1 Physical Characterization ..........................................................................................................30
4.1.1 Coast Features ................................................................................................................30
4.1.2 Shoreline Typology .........................................................................................................31
4.1.3 Archeological, Sensitive and Protected sites ..................................................................32
4.2 Human Pressures .......................................................................................................................33
4.2.1 Agricultural Activities .....................................................................................................33
4.2.2 Urbanization ...................................................................................................................33
4.2.3 Tourism ...........................................................................................................................34
4.2.4 Industrial Facilities ........................................................................................................34
4.3 Environmental Pollution ............................................................................................................35
4.3.1 Land-based sources ........................................................................................................35
4.3.2 Marine-based sources.....................................................................................................37
4.3.3 Physical alterations ........................................................................................................39
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COAST OF CAGLIARI (ITALY) .................................................................................................40
5.1 Physical Characterization ..........................................................................................................40
5.1.1 Coast Features ................................................................................................................40
5.1.2 Shoreline Typology .........................................................................................................41
5.1.3 Archeological, Sensitive and Protected sites ..................................................................42
5.2 Human Pressures .......................................................................................................................45
5.2.1 Agricultural Activities .....................................................................................................45
5.2.2 Urbanization ...................................................................................................................46
5.2.3 Tourism ...........................................................................................................................47
5.2.4 Industrial Facilities ........................................................................................................48
5.3 Environmental Pollution ............................................................................................................49
5.3.1 Land-based sources ........................................................................................................49
5.3.2 Marine-based sources.....................................................................................................49
5.3.3 Physical alterations ........................................................................................................49
6.
COAST OF GABES (TUNISIA) ....................................................................................................51
6.1 Physical Characterization ..........................................................................................................52
6.1.1 Coast Features ................................................................................................................52
6.1.2 Shoreline Typology .........................................................................................................52
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6.1.3 Archeological, Sensitive and Protected sites ..................................................................53
6.2 Human Pressures .......................................................................................................................53
6.2.1 Agricultural Activities .....................................................................................................53
6.2.2 Urbanization ...................................................................................................................54
6.2.3 Tourism ...........................................................................................................................54
6.2.4 Industrial Facilities ........................................................................................................55
6.3 Environmental Pollution ............................................................................................................57
6.3.1 Land-based sources ........................................................................................................57
6.3.2 Marine-based sources.....................................................................................................58
6.3.3 Physical alterations ........................................................................................................58
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REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................59
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Location of project study areas .........................................................................................................9
Figure 2 Mediterranean Sea and coastline ....................................................................................................10
Figure 3 Predominant surface circulation in the Mediterranean Sea (Millott & Taupier Letage, 2005) ......12
Figure 4 Population densities and urban centers in Mediterranean Basin (UNEP 2012) .............................13
Figure 5 Mining and oil and gas infrastructure in the Mediterranean Basin ( (Beilstein & Bournay, 2009) 14
Figure 6 Maritime traffic routes through the Mediterranean Sea (Marine Traffic, 2013) ............................15
Figure 7 Status of wastewater treatment plants around the Mediterranean Sea (UNEP 2012) .....................16
Figure 8 Oil spill Marine accidents (REMPEC, 2009) .................................................................................18
Figure 9 Cummulative impacts of human pressures on the Mediterranean (NCEAS, 2013) .......................19
Figure 10 Location of the studied Lebanese coastal zone .............................................................................20
Figure 11 Shoreline typology of the Lebanese study area (SNC, 2011) .......................................................22
Figure 12 Main sites of interest along the Lebanese study area (ECODIT/IAURIF, 1997) .........................23
Figure 13 Agriculture in green houses along Byblos Caza ...........................................................................24
Figure 14 Storage tanks along the Lebanese study area ................................................................................26
Figure 15 Maritime traffic in the Lebanese waters .......................................................................................29
Figure 16 Population density in the PACA region (IGN – Insee, 2012).......................................................30
Figure 17 Example of shoreline typologies based on the ALDES project ...................................................31
Figure 18 Example of the shoreline typologies based on the Eurosion project ...........................................32
Figure 19 Sensitive and Protected sites within the studied zone...................................................................33
Figure 20 Urbanization pressure within the studied zone in France .............................................................34
Figure 21 Industrial facilities within the PACA studied zone in France .......................................................35
Figure 22 Discharge of water treatment plants along the studies area in France (Boissery et al., 2011) ......36
Figure 23 Indirect discharges coming from the surrounding watersheds (Boissery et al., 2011) .................37
Figure 24 Pollution sources from ports (Boissery et al., 2011) .....................................................................38
Figure 25 Metox Index (Boissery et al., 2011)..............................................................................................39
Figure 26 Location of the studied Italian coastal zone ..................................................................................40
Figure 27 Ramsar sites along the Gulf of Cagliari ........................................................................................43
Figure 28 Marine protected areas along the Gulf of Cagliari........................................................................44
Figure 29 Special Protection Areas in the Gulf of Cagliari ..........................................................................44
Figure 30 Sites of Community importance along the Gulf of Cagliari .........................................................45
Figure 31 The Saras facility and IGCC plant along the Gulf of Cagliari ......................................................48
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Figure 32 Location of the Gulf of Gabès study area in Tunisia (adopted from Lamon et al., 2014) ............51
Figure 33 Study sites in the Gulf of Gabès under the framework of the GREAT Med project ....................52
Figure 34 Olive cultivation and greenhouses in the Gulf of Gabès ..............................................................54
Figure 35 Location of the SIAPE factory near the coast along the Gulf of Gabes .......................................55
Figure 36 Location of GCT industry in Gabès ..............................................................................................56
Figure 37 Oil and gas fields along the coast of the Gulf of Tunisia (Klett 2001). ........................................57
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Fishing ports and vessels in the Lebanese study area (UNEP-ROWA, 2012) .................................24
Table 2 Agricultural areas present along the Gulf of Cagliari ......................................................................46
Table 3 Population of coastal municipalities in the Gulf of Cagliari ............................................................47
Table 4 Vulnerability to coastal erosion in the Gulf of Gabès (PNUD/MEDD, 2007) ................................58
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ACRONYMS
BHC
Hexachlorocyclo-hexane
BOD5
Biological oxygen demand after five days
COD
Chemical oxygen demand
DDT
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
EU
European Union
FC
Fecal coliform
GBA
Greater Beirut Area
GCT
Groupe Chimique Tunisien
GDP
Gross domestic product
HCB
Hexachlorobenzene
HNS
Hazardous and noxious substances
IGCC
Integrated gasification combined cycle
ITB00
Natura 2000 site code
METOX
Métaux toxiques index
MOE
Ministry of Environment
MPA
Marine protected Area
Nt
Ammonia
PACA
Provence –Alpes- Côte d'Azur
PAHs
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
PCBs
Polychlorinated Biphenyls
POPs
Persistent organic pollutants
Pt
Orthophosphate
SPA
Special Protection Area
TC
Total coliform
TEL
Threshold effective levels
TSS
Total suspended solids
UNESCO
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
VSS
Volatile suspended solids
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1. Introduction
The GREAT Med project targets biodiversity conservation, environmental management and monitoring
along the Mediterranean coast. It aims to design and implement an integrated strategy for conservation
and management based on ecological indicators and risk analysis. The main objective of the project is
to develop a scientific toolkit for the assessment of biodiversity and its vulnerability to potential risks,
including oil spills, hazardous and noxious substances, and urbanization and tourism. The project also
aims to create a collaborative network of institutions, agencies and local administrations interested in
promoting biodiversity conservation along with environmental monitoring and management at the
Mediterranean Basin level. The project involves four partner countries and is implemented in five study
areas (Figure 1): the Gulf of Cagliari (Italy), the coastal area of Provence (France), the coastal areas of
Byblos and Beirut (Lebanon), and the Gulf of Gabès (Tunisia).
This State of the Art on Human Pressures Report serves as a baseline review of major human pressures
along the Mediterranean coast, with an emphasis on the coastal zones of the study areas. It identifies
various anthropogenic stressors and defines associated pollution sources and resulting environmental
impacts. The report consists of two main sections. The first section presents an overview of the natural
and anthropogenic stresses along the Mediterranean coastline. This is followed by an assessment of
human activities, pressures, and pollution sources at case study sites. The report is a desk study,
synthesizing available knowledge based on accessible secondary data sources (local and regional
environmental reports, databases, governmental documents as well as Google Earth imagery). It is
intended to be used as a reference layer in the development of the risk analysis toolkit.
Figure 1 Location of project study areas
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2. Mediterranean Coastline
2.1 Physical Characteristics
The Mediterranean Sea is an ancient intercontinental saline water body, with 46,000 km of shoreline
that stretches along southern Europe, western Asia and northern Africa. The coastline is shared by 21
basin countries (Albania, Algeria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Cyprus, Egypt, France, Greece,
Italy, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Monaco, Montenegro, Morocco, Occupied Palestinian Authorities,
Slovenia, Spain, Syria, Tunisia, and Turkey). The Mediterranean Sea also includes more than 3,000
islands, the largest of which are Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Cyprus and Crete. It is divided into two
different basins: the Western Basin, extending from the Cape of Trafalgar in Spain and the Cape of
Spartel in Africa in the west to Tunisia's Cape Bon in the east, and the Eastern Basin, stretching from
the eastern limit of the Western Basin to the Levantine coastline (Figure 2).
Figure 2 Mediterranean Sea and coastline
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Its basin area of 2.5 million square kilometers has a heterogeneous coastline with a 54:46 ratio of rocky
to sandy coasts including diverse typology such as rocky shores, steep, rocky cliffs, coastal plains, sand
dunes, mudflats, brackish water lagoons, estuaries, wetlands and reefs as well as diverse marine
ecosystems with sea grass meadows, coralligenous areas, deep water benthic systems (cold-water coral
reefs) and pelagic systems (UNEP, 2012). Given these rich ecosystems, the Mediterranean Sea which
covers only 1% of the world marine area hosts 8% of the world biodiversity. Moreover, the basin has a
high rate of endemism making it one of Earth’s most biologically rich areas (UNEP, 2012)(WWF,
2015).
2.2 Vulnerability
Despite its richness in biodiversity, the Mediterranean Basin is considered highly vulnerable to
biodiversity loss (Gürlük, 2009). Its vulnerability stems from its intrinsic physical characteristics and
the interaction of its inhabitants with their environment. The main natural and anthropogenic stressors
that define the vulnerability of the Mediterranean coast are outlined below.
2.2.1
Natural stressors
The Mediterranean Sea is almost landlocked with one main inflow-outflow passage with the Atlantic
Ocean through the Straits of Gibraltar. Hence, the Mediterranean Sea suffers from limited circulation
(Figure 3) where the average renewal rate is very low at around 90 years causing it to be highly sensitive
to pollution accumulation (WWF, 2015). This is coupled with high surface temperatures and
evaporation rates, albeit with spatial heterogeneity. These conditions further aggravate its sensitivity to
pollution and reduce its buffering capacity. The sea surface temperature varies between 12 and 25˚C,
with highest temperatures recorded in the Eastern Basin, thus promoting high metabolic rates. At the
same time, evaporation rates along the basin are much higher than precipitation and runoff rates
combined leading to high salinity levels ranging between 36 – 39 ‰, with more pronounced salinity in
the Eastern Basin (UNEP 2012). This inflow-outflow imbalance is expected to further intensify under
future climate change projections (UNEP 2012). As a result, these hydrologic features lead to low
surface nutrient concentrations; hence low primary productivity and low phytoplankton biomasses
(UNEP, 2012).
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Figure 3 Predominant surface circulation in the Mediterranean Sea (Millott & Taupier Letage, 2005)
2.2.2
Anthropogenic Stressors
The diversity of ecosystems and their corresponding resources (fisheries, forests, oil and gas…) as well
as the ecosystem services offered by the Mediterranean Basin has attracted human settlements since
prehistoric times. Historically, civilizations along the Mediterranean were associated with intense
human activity, often coupled with maritime traffic for trade. Anthropogenic stressors include, but are
not limited to, urbanization, tourism, industrialization, agriculture, fishing, unsustainable exploitation
of resources and maritime traffic, which persist as chronic pressures translated into pollution, loss of
species and habitats, degradation and fragmentation of ecosystems. While these pressures can be
encountered along the entire Mediterranean, their frequency, intensity and impact vary spatially and
temporally.
Urbanization rate is very high along the Mediterranean Basin (~67.6%), where 315 M people out of the
466 M total basin population (in 2010) live in urban areas concentrated near the coast (UNDESA, 2011),
with more rapid urbanization reported in the Southern and Eastern Mediterranean (Figure 4) (UNEP
2012). However, the flux of tourists into the Mediterranean is higher along the northern shores (Europe)
as compared to the southern and eastern shores, adding to the population pressure along the whole basin
(UNEP 2012). About one-third of the world's international tourists visit the Mediterranean Basin, where
tourism has become a vital sector in the economy. This flux of about 360 M tourist per year, comparable
to the Mediterranean's urban population (WWF 2015), exacerbates existing human pressures on
resources and ecosystem services which in turn strain the local authorities’ abilities to control, monitor
and manage the associated damage and pollution.
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Figure 4 Population densities and urban centers in Mediterranean Basin (UNEP 2012)
Industrialization along the Mediterranean coasts usually occurs concomitantly with urbanization, where
industries of various types and sizes stretch over large swaths of the coastal zone. Many facilities are
also associated with auxiliary facilities, including storage tanks (for chemicals, oil, hazardous and
noxious substances) and ports. On the other hand, mining and manufacturing activities, common in the
northern Mediterranean shores, as well as oil and gas production and auxiliary facilities (refineries,
petrochemical industries) are present along the whole basin (Figure 5). Although agriculture is not
considered as a major sector of the Mediterranean economy, it is widespread along its coasts.
Agriculture, whether rain fed or irrigated, traditional or intensive, along coastal plains or in greenhouses,
remains a pollution threat, particularly in view of its non-point nature.
Human activity in the Mediterranean Basin is also associated with the degradation of land, and the
depletion of aquatic and marine resources. Although the overall landing of fish and marine catch remains
modest (UNEP/EEA 1999), fisheries, vital to Mediterranean economies, are under continuous pressure
by over-exploitation and unsustainable practices (UNEP/MAP/MED POL 2005). The use of
nonselective fishing methods and destructive fishing techniques remains a major threat (UNEP 2012).
Besides fisheries, sand extraction, rock quarrying, sea reclamation, drying of wetlands and the
unsustainable use of other resources is common in the Mediterranean, despite being illegal in almost all
the basin countries.
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Figure 5 Mining and oil and gas infrastructure in the Mediterranean Basin (Beilstein & Bournay, 2009)
In parallel to human pressures, maritime traffic assumes a major role in the total anthropogenic pressures
and impacts within the Mediterranean basin (Abdulla & Linden, 2008) (Figure 6). The Mediterranean
Sea is the oldest navigated sea. It acts as a conveyor belt for trade and is now known to be one of the
world's busiest waterways, attracting 15% of global shipping activity and 10% of vessel deadweight
tonnage (UNEP 2012). Almost two-thirds of all maritime traffic in the Mediterranean is internal; the
remaining one-third takes place through three major passageways: the Strait of Çanakkale/Sea of
Marmara/Istanbul Straits, the Strait of Gibraltar, and the Suez Canal. The historical construction of the
Suez Canal in 1869, linking the East in a shortcut route to Europe, boosted traffic through the
Mediterranean, particularly for oil transportation (90% of the total oil traffic, at one point, passed
through the Suez Canal) (UNEP/EEA 1999). Accordingly, the Mediterranean has become a major load
and discharge center for crude oil, encompassing 18% of the global crude oil shipments. While dry
cargo and passenger ships dominate ship calls along Mediterranean ports, ship calls for crude oil tankers
constitute about 2% (UNEP 2012).
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Figure 6 Maritime traffic routes through the Mediterranean Sea (Marine Traffic, 2013)
2.3 Sources of Pollution
Anthropogenic pollution can be categorized into land and marine based sources. Moreover, human
activities can also lead to physical alterations of the coastline.
2.3.1
Land-based sources
Land based sources consist of pollution sources originating on land along the coastal zone. Pollution
loads from these areas flow into the sea through point and non-point discharges. Land based sources
include pollution arising from urbanization, agriculture, tourism and industrialization. Much of the
pollution reported along the Mediterranean coast is land based pollution, including:
1. Sewage or untreated domestic wastewater is a direct pollutant of urbanization, particularly in the
absence of wastewater treatment plants. Point discharges of sewage, i.e. pipes that discharge near
shore or penetrate few kilometers into the sea, are more common along the eastern and southern
shores of the Mediterranean due to the lack of non-operational wastewater treatment plants, whereas
treated wastewater outfalls are common along the northern coasts. In fact, about 69% of cities around
the Mediterranean have wastewater treatment plants (WWTP), most of which are located along the
northern coasts, while 21% of cities do not have WWTP and 6% have WWTP under construction
(Figure 7). It is apparent that the southern and eastern shores of the Mediterranean suffer most from
untreated wastewater discharges.
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Figure 7 Status of wastewater treatment plants around the Mediterranean Sea (UNEP 2012)
Discharge of raw sewage or untreated wastewater pollutes the receiving water with high loads of
organic pollutants i.e. COD, BOD, total (TC) and fecal coliforms (FC), suspended solids and
nutrients as well as heavy metals. The discharge of treated wastewater has acceptable
concentrations of these pollutants except for heavy metals, which are not removed by conventional
treatment processes, as well as for chlorinated hydrocarbons which form during treatment. Heavy
metals and chlorinated hydrocarbons persist in the environment, accumulate in marine organisms’
tissues and magnify in the food chain. Eutrophication, while limited in the Mediterranean Sea, is
associated with this excessive discharge of high organic and nutrient loaded waste stream resulting
from domestic wastewater and/or agricultural runoff.
2. Agricultural runoff, particularly under intensive irrigated agricultural practices, is a major non-point
pollution source carrying high loads of nutrients and organic pollutants as well as persistent organic
pollutants (POPs) into the Mediterranean Sea. The application of fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides
and hormones as well as the spread of manure pollutes the surface fluvial runoff resulting in
eutrophication and algal blooms in the receiving water bodies. Chlorinated pesticides (DDTs, HCB,
aldrin, endrin, dieldrin and lindane), although banned in most Mediterranean countries, still
constitute the main source of POPs. These chemicals are known to have detrimental impacts on the
food chain, marine and coastal organisms, and the ecosystems. Additionally, the mechanization and
intensification of agriculture, among other things, have led to increased desertification, soil erosion,
loss, and salinization along the Mediterranean shores (MAP/UNEP/MEDPOL 2005). In fact, about
one third of the Mediterranean coastline suffers from erosion (UNEP 2012).
3. River runoff which contributes much needed freshwater and sediments to the Mediterranean Sea
through four major rivers (Ebro, Rhone, Po, and the Nile) and tens of other smaller rivers, is
invariably a point source of pollution as rivers may carry untreated domestic and industrial
wastewaters and agricultural runoff from upstream areas to estuaries and into the sea. Rivers along
the Mediterranean carry nutrients, organic pollutants, POPs including PCBs and pesticides, as well
as heavy metals (UNEP 2012).
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4. Industrial runoff is another major point source of pollution in the Mediterranean, where industries
and industrial zones are spread along many coastal zones. Industries handling hazardous and noxious
substances (HNS), oil, heavy metals, and POPs are of major concern as leakages, untreated
wastewater or intentional and unintentional spills of such pollutants contaminate and persist in
sediments, biota, food chains and aquatic ecosystems. Industries related to energy production,
manufacture of cement and fertilizers, oil refining, wastewater treatment plants, and chemical and
metal industries are reported as the most polluting industries along the Mediterranean
(MEDPOL/UNEP-MAP, 2012). The scale of industrialization varies along the Mediterranean coast,
with industries mostly concentrated along the northern coasts (France, Italy and Spain);
nevertheless, oil refineries and petrochemical industries are more common along the eastern and
southern shores (UNEP 2012). Industrial accidents and the associated oil, chemical and HNS spills
remain a major threat from industrial pollution. HNS and oil spills have been reported all along the
Mediterranean, particularly in the vicinity of industrial zones, storage farms, loading and unloading
ports as well as marine based sources (Beilstein & Bournay, 2009).
5. Solid waste or marine litter, originating from intentional or unintentional domestic or municipal
solid waste discharge as well as from wind-blown debris from open dumps and failing landfills, ends
up at the coast, floating on the sea surface or settling on the seabed. Major concerns revolve around
the hazards posed by plastics and micro-plastics on marine organisms that get poisoned upon
ingestion, choked upon consumption or killed by entanglement (UNEP, 2009; 2012).
2.3.2
Marine-based sources
Marine based sources consist of pollution originating in the sea from marine vessels, shipping and
maritime traffic, and offshore construction and installations (rigs, pipelines, wind farms…). Marine
based pollution includes marine noise, marine dumping of liquid and solid effluents, spills and
groundings from marine accidents as well as air pollution (Abdulla and Linden, 2008). Marine dumping
and oil spills, are further elaborated below, as they dominate environmental concerns of marine based
pollution in the Mediterranean (EEA 2006; UNEP 2012).
1. Marine dumping, whether deliberate or unintentional, is a common practice in shipping and marine
transport in the Mediterranean, despite its banning. It mainly consists of discharges of ballast
waters, untreated sewage, leakages during loading/discharging, leaching anti-fouling paint, as well
as oily waste from direct oil discharge or bunkering, dry-docking operations and bilge water. It is
reported that about 0.1% of crude oil transported is deliberately dumped in the sea through tank
washing operations (UNEP 2012). These operations present a continuous source of diffuse pollution
that is often overlooked; albeit the fact that the associated poly aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are
toxic, persistent and difficult to clean.
2. Despite its low-frequency-high-impact nature, oil spills due to accidents, vessel grounding, blowouts on offshore installations, structural failures or fires and explosions represent a challenging
threat in the Mediterranean. The number of accidents is ever increasing (Figure 8). Given that there
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are about 23 offshore rigs and more than 40 oil-related sites (i.e. pipeline terminals, refineries,
offshore platforms...) in the Mediterranean in addition to the heavy oil traffic (9000 tanker trips
carrying over 400 million tons of crude oil in 2006) (Abdulla and Linden 2010), an oil spill could
occur at any time and place particularly along the major sea routes and in or around oil loading and
unloading terminals. Additionally, the ongoing oil and gas discovery and production in the
Levantine region poses further and new potential threats.
Figure 8 Oil spill Marine accidents (REMPEC, 2009)
2.3.3
Physical alterations
In parallel to land and marine based sources of pollution, physical alterations of the coastal zone and the
seabed present another threat to the Mediterranean coast and sea. With the high coastal urbanization
along the Mediterranean, the coastline is dotted by major cities with their associated infrastructures,
airports, ports, tourism establishments and resorts, as well as industrial facilities.
Sea filling, reclamation and dredging, shoreline destruction, coastal construction as well as sand, gravel
and rock extraction and trawlers, typically associated with urbanization and conventional coastal
development, physically alter the coastline. These physical alterations lead to the destabilization and
erosion of the coastline, fragmentation of ecosystems, destruction of habitats, disruption of the integrity
of the seabed, as well as altering the hydrographic conditions of the sea by impacting circulation patterns
as well as sedimentation and freshwater fluxes.
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2.4
Synthesis
In effect, each of the anthropogenic pressures carries multiple unwanted damages and pollution types.
However, they rarely occur in isolation, so the Mediterranean coast suffers from the cumulative impacts
and synergy of these multiple pressures acting simultaneously and mostly chronically.
Hotspots of environmental pollution are abundant along the Mediterranean coast. Out of more than a
hundred identified hotspots, 26% are urban, 18% are industrial and 56% are mixed (urban and industrial)
areas (EEA 2006). Nevertheless, the state of the Mediterranean coast varies spatially where models of
the cumulative impacts from multiple pressures suggest greater stress along the coastal areas of Spain,
France, Italy, Tunisia and Egypt compared to the rest of the Mediterranean (Figure 9) (NCEAS, 2013).
Figure 9 Cummulative impacts of human pressures on the Mediterranean (NCEAS, 2013)
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3. Coast of Beirut – Byblos (Lebanon)
The area of interest extends from the Khalde area (33°46'37.28"N and 35°28'13.93"E) in the south to
the Madfoun area (34°12'40.44"N and 35°38'57.29"E) in the north. It stretches along 50 km of the
Lebanese coastline, encompassing the coastal zones of the Greater Beirut Area (GBA) and the city of
Byblos, the two case studies within the framework of the GREAT MED project (Figure 10). The GBA
consists of the city of Beirut, the capital and largest city in Lebanon, and its suburbs, a hub for
urbanization, tourism, commerce and industrial facilities including the official airport and seaports.
Byblos is a World Heritage site, a historical touristic destination and a cultural and archaeological site.
It is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, being inhabited since 6000 B.C. (ESRI,
2014). Byblos has a historic strategic coastal location with still-standing medieval towers, an ancient
port, as well as well-preserved historical and inhabited localities.
Madfoun
Byblos
Beirut
Khalde
Figure 10 Location of the studied Lebanese coastal zone
20
3.1 Physical Characterization
3.1.1
Coast Features
The Lebanese coastal zone extends 230 km, along the Eastern Mediterranean (CDR, 2005). The coastal
zone forms a 500 m (on average) corridor that runs along the coastline. The coastal zone represents 8%
of the total Lebanese surface area (~840 km2) (SNC, 2011). Lebanon’s economic activity is mainly
concentrated along its coastal zone, where more than 74% of Lebanon’s GDP is produced (SNC, 2011).
Overall the coastal zone is made of urban areas (21%), beaches and dunes (20%), bare rocks (4.7%),
agricultural areas (15%), large industries and commercial units (10%), tourism resorts (7.5%) and ports
(5.3%) (Assaf, 2009; UNEP-ROWA, 2012). Accordingly, more than 60% of the coastline is already
developed. Additionally, the coastline has been experiencing a continuous high demand for land
particularly for touristic purposes. Unfortunately, many of the touristic developments infringe on the
public maritime domain due to weak governmental regulations and lack of enforcement (SOER, 2011).
The mean annual temperature along the coastal zone varies between 13.5 and 27°C with an average
annual rainfall of 600 mm (CDR, 2005; Nasrallah, 2007). Waves are characterized by weak amplitudes
and short wave lengths. Surface currents are mainly south-north directed while waves are mainly southwest directed. Minor clockwise eddy currents resulting in southerly movements are also present along
the coast, especially in Jounieh and Beirut (Goedicke, 1974). The water salinity ranges between 34 and
39 ‰, with an average of 38 ‰ (El Fadel et al., 2000).
3.1.2
Shoreline Typology
The studied coastline has a diverse typology consisting mainly of sandy, rocky and gravel beaches, cliffs
and estuaries, and a series of headlands (Beirut) and embayments (Jounieh, Byblos). However, it is
excessively cut and infringed with the rampant increase of reclaimed land and uncontrolled urbanization
(SOER, 2011; CDR, 2005).
Figure 11 shows that the GBA coastal stretch is mainly characterized by reclaimed land intertwined
with limestone cliffs and a small stretch of a sandy beach. One of the major cliffs is the renowned Pigeon
Rock in Raouche, whereas the sandy beach is the public beach of Ramlet el-Baida (~1065m in length).
The reclaimed lands consist mostly of touristic establishments and coastal infrastructure including roads,
an airport, ports, wharfs and marinas.
Sandy, rocky and gravel beaches are abundant in the Byblos study area, enriching it with a diverse
shoreline. The archaeological site itself is located on a natural sand stone cliff flanked to the south by
exposed sandstone platforms and outcrops and to the north by a mixture of eroding limestone cliffs
overlain by conglomerate and fronted by a sand (~250m) and gravel beach (ESRI, 2014). However, the
coastlines also suffer from anthropogenic infringements, with pockets of reclaimed land.
21
Figure 11 Shoreline typology of the Lebanese study area (SNC, 2011)
3.1.3
Archeological, Sensitive and Protected Sites
The studied coastline is rich with areas of interest due to its landscape, geology, paleontology,
biodiversity, archeological, and historical nature (Figure 12).
Within the GBA, the main attraction is the Pigeon Rock in Beirut with underwater caves claimed to be
the only remaining breeding place for the endangered monk seal in Lebanon. The sandy beach of Ramlet
el Baida and the Beirut airport wave breaker are important sensitive areas proposed to be protected by
the Ministry of Environment (MOE) together with the Pigeon Rock (MOE/IUCN, 2014). In addition,
ruins recently found in Beirut Central district, mainly of the roman period, are gaining popularity as
archeological attractions.
Continuously inhabited since Neolithic times and bearing outstanding witness to the beginnings of the
Phoenician civilization, Byblos was named a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. It is renowned as the
most significant historical and archeological attraction along the Lebanese coastline. In addition, the
Jounieh Bay, North Metn beaches and Madfoun shorelines are sensitive coastal areas whereas the Nahr
El Kaleb River Valley is a historical attraction classified as a ‘Nature Site’ (CDR, 2005). Nahr El Kaleb,
Nahr Ibrahim and Nahr Beirut are the only rivers to feed into the Mediterranean Sea along the studied
coastal area forming small estuaries. The Ministry of Environment is considering protecting these sites
as part of proposed network of marine protected areas (MOE/IUCN, 2014).
22
Figure 12 Main sites of interest along the Lebanese study area (ECODIT/IAURIF, 1997)
3.2 Human Pressures
3.2.1
Agricultural Activities
Agricultural areas are mainly absent in GBA, but increase along the coastal area from Beirut to
Madfoun. In general, agriculture assumes 13.3 km2 of the studied coastal area of which about 26,400
m2 only occur in Beirut whereas about 1.2 km2 extend along the study area around Byblos (UNEPROWA, 2012). Cultivations in these agricultural areas include subtropical crops, vegetables and fruit
trees and are mainly concentrated in greenhouses in Byblos, Amchit and Tabarja (Figure 12)(SNC,
2011). Agricultural practices in greenhouses are more intensive and require more agro-chemical
(pesticides and fertilizers) use. It is reported that 414kg/ha and 5.5kg/ha are the mean annual rates of
fertilizer and pesticide use in Lebanon, respectively (Bashour, 2008).
Despite the fact that the fishing sector in Lebanon is artisanal, it poses a threat to the marine
environment, particularly through the fishing infrastructures (ports), vessels, and fishing gear. Offshore
use of draglines particularly for harvesting pelagic fish is increasing. A total of 44 fishermen wharfs are
scattered along the coast with a total of 2662 vessels (UNEP-ROWA, 2012). In total, 17 fishing ports
are located along the studied coastal zone (Table 1). Seven are within the GBA and 4 are in the Byblos
study area, of which 1 is in the city itself.
23
Table 1 Fishing ports and vessels in the Lebanese study area (UNEP-ROWA, 2012)
Area
Number of fishing
ports
Number of
Vessels
% of total fishing
vessels
GBA (Khalde to Nahr Kalb)
7
715
27
Jounieh area (Nahr Kalb to Nahr Ibrahim)
6
184
7
Byblos study area (Nahr Ibrahim to Madfoun)
4 ( 1 in the city)
125
4.4
Figure 13 Agriculture in greenhouses along Byblos Caza
3.2.2
Urbanization
Urbanization in Lebanon is high, whereby 88% of the population reside in cities. Most urban centers
are concentrated along the coastal zone, with around 33% of all built-up areas found along the coastal
strip (CDR, 2005). It is estimated that about 55% of the total population lives in the coastal zone,
resulting in a coastal population density of 594 inhabitants per km2 (in 2000) (SOER, 2011). While
Beirut is fully urban, the other stretches of the coast have not yet undergone the same level of
urbanization despite pockets of high urbanization in Jounieh, Kaslik, Zouk, Amchit and Byblos. While
the coast and sea in Lebanon are subject to the well-known environmental threats associated with
urbanization, additional threats include illegal coastal construction projects and illegal settlements
observed at multiple locations along the studied area.
Urbanization along the coast has attracted commercial, industrial, touristic establishments, and hospitals
in addition to residential units; however, the urban infrastructure has not kept up with the increased
fluxes. As such, large areas are still not connected to sewage networks, treatment plants are almost
inexistent, and solid waste management still suffers from major problems. For instance, there are about
37 hospitals in the study area, out of which 2 are in Byblos area and 30 are in GBA, yet management of
hospital liquid and solid effluents remains an uncontrolled and controversial issue. In parallel,
24
management of domestic solid waste also remains controversial where several dumpsites, although
currently non-operational, exist along the studied coastal area (Normandy, Bourj Hammoud, Ouzai),
threatening the surrounding land and water with leachate.
3.2.3
Tourism
About 71% of all touristic establishments in Lebanon are located on the coastal zone, consisting mainly
of hotels, beach resorts, and marina projects for leisure and recreational activities (Assaf, 2009). Along
the study area alone, there are at least 300 hotels and 70 resorts, mainly concentrated within GBA and
Jounieh, where at least 7 resorts include a marina. The main problem with tourism in Lebanon is that it
remains mostly conventional with only one environmentally friendly establishment in Byblos (Edde
Sands Resort). Almost all other resorts infringe on the public maritime domain by sea filling activities,
and are constructed and operated without an environmental impact assessment or monitoring. As a
result, environmental problems related to solid and liquid effluents are additional pressures associated
with tourism. In parallel, data is lacking on the sizes of the marinas, the number and size of entering and
docking vessels, as well as the activities undertaken i.e. fueling, washing, painting, refurbishing, etc.
which highly influence the type and intensity of the associated impacts.
3.2.4
Industrial Facilities
The main industrial activities in Lebanon are located along its coastal zone (~65%) and particularly in
the vicinity of Beirut, Tripoli, Chekka, Selaata, Sibline and Zouk, where large industrial facilities occupy
about 24 km of the coast (~10% of its total length) (CDR, 2005; Assaf, 2009). In the study area (Khalde
to Madfoun) alone, there are around 974 industries out of which 350 are in Beirut city, 404 are in the
rest of GBA, whereas only 6 are in the Byblos study area (CCIA, 2011)(MoI, 2014). These industries
are of different sizes and diverse categories, mainly consisting of:
-
-
Paper and cardboard, plastic, stone, concrete, wood, paint, textile, tanneries, chemicals and
agrochemicals, steel and aluminum, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics, electrical appliances, furniture
and machinery industries are common along the studied coastal area with the majority concentrated
in GBA i.e. Dora industrial complexes, Karantina, Jal el Dib, Bourj Hammoud, Ouzaii, Zouk among
others.
Thermal power plants: one major power plant (the Zouk thermal power plant) is located along the
studied coastal area in the Zouk Mkayel area near Jounieh. It consists of five power generation
lines, each of which includes a steam boiler to produce high-pressure and a steam turbine or diesel
fuel based generator. The installation is maintained at a basic level and maintenance is only reactive
after accidents. Water for the boilers is made available through a desalination plant, however the
brine is returned to the sea, untreated. In addition, fuel loading and storage is done on nonimpervious platforms (El Asmar & Taki, 2014).
25
-
Storage tanks: the studied coast zone has many locations housing storage tanks mainly used for oil
storage but also for chemicals and other hazardous and noxious substances (Figure 14). More than
4 different locations with large storage tanks can be identified in the study area including: the Zouk
power plant tanks, the Amchit tanks, the Karantina tanks, and the tanks’ hub in Dora. Data on the
type of tanks, type of stored materials, volumes, accidents, and maintenance data is lacking.
Figure 14 Storage tanks along the Lebanese study area
-
-
-
-
Solid waste management facilities including one sorting facility, Sukleen, one composting facility,
Sukomi and two dumpsites, the Normandy (10ha) - closed and rehabilitated, and the Bourj
Hammoud (15ha) - closed but not rehabilitated (European Environmental Agency, 2006). All these
facilities are located in the Karantina area in the GBA, just north of Beirut city around the Beirut
River mouth.
A slaughterhouse is located near the solid waste management facilities at the Beirut river estuary.
While the facility was planned as a temporary governmental abattoir; it has been in operation for
more than 30 years while violating health and sanitation standards. Even though it is currently
shutdown for renovation, its liquid and solid effluents still represent a major threat particularly due
to its untreated direct discharges into the Beirut River.
Airport: the Rafik Hariri Beirut International Airport is located south of Beirut. It consists of two
passenger terminals, three runways, a taxiway, a fire station, a power plant and a general aviation
terminal. Two of the runways were constructed on reclaimed land with an associated breakwater,
one of the longest along the Lebanese coast. As any other airport, it includes services for deicing
and anti-icing, fuel storage, and refueling activities.
Ports: A number of ports, marinas and fishermen wharfs are present along the studied coastal area.
The Port of Beirut, one of the largest ports on the Eastern Mediterranean coastline, stretches over a
total area of 1.2 km2, most of which is reclaimed land. It is located along the northern limit of Beirut
city. It has four basins, 16 quays and a newly built container terminal, where traffic is estimated
around 5 million tons per year (CDR, 2005). Three major marinas (St George marina- Beirut,
Dbayeh Marina, ATCL-Kaslik marina) and more than 10 other smaller marinas are spread from
26
Khalde to Madfoun, mostly associated with touristic establishments. In addition, seven main
fishermen wharfs could be identified in the studied area namely the Ouzaii, Dalieh, Manara, Beirut,
Dora, Jounieh and Byblos harbors in addition to 10 smaller ones (SNC, 2011).
3.3 Environmental Pollution
3.3.1
Land-based sources
Land-based sources of pollution along the studied coastal area mainly consist of domestic and industrial
discharges, agricultural runoff, polluted river runoff and solid waste:
-
Domestic/urban discharges include wastewater collected from residential units, touristic
establishments, commercial centers as well as hospitals. This wastewater, approximately 149 – 249
Mm3 per year (SNC, 2011) (SOER, 2011), is discharged untreated via 53 outfalls distributed along
the whole Lebanese coast into the Mediterranean Sea. In the studied coastal area, there are more
than 20 outfalls, of which 16 are in GBA (SNC, 2011). While there are 12 constructed or planned
wastewater treatment plants at the coast, of which 4 fall along the studied coastal zone, none is
operational, except for the Ghadir primary treatment plant, located in GBA south of Beirut. Elevated
organic and nutrient contamination from raw sewage is reflected by high levels of BOD, COD, total
and fecal coliform counts, as well as TSS in seawater samples (SOER 2011) (El-Fadel et al.
2000)(WB, 2010). In addition, coastal waters in the study area are also affected by large seafront
dumpsites in Bourj Hammoud and Normandy, which despite closure; continue to present a threat
to the coastal environment through leachate and contaminants seepage. In addition, the long lifetime
of drifting debris and floating waste has led to the sea-floor being contaminated with waste
(including cans, tyres and plastic bags) in many locations in front of these dumps.
-
Industrial wastewater discharge is also of high concern in Lebanon particularly in the absence of
treatment. Industrial effluents are a source of both inorganic and organic chemical pollutants and
include acids, alkalis, heavy metals, solvents and detergents. Previous studies have indicated the
existence of elevated levels of pollutants, particularly high loads of BOD (WB, 2010), heavy metals
(zinc, copper, lead, manganese, vanadium, mercury, barium, cadmium, chromium and nickel) and
other chemical compounds (chlorinated benzenes, alkanes, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAHs), esters, and phenolic compounds) (El-Fadel et al. 2000). Arsenic, nickel, mercury and
chromium were also confirmed around the Dora area within the GBA (SNC, 2011). These high
levels were attributed to the industrial complexes in the area. Fuel storage tanks, pipelines, and
thermal power plants are also major sources of pollution particularly in terms of poly-aromatic
hydrocarbons and fuel and chemical leakages during storage or loading/unloading processes as well
as in cases of accidents and spills. One of the main oil spills within the study area was the Jiyeh oil
spill in 2006.
-
Agricultural runoff, particularly around the Byblos case study, is of concern as it carries nutrients,
27
pesticides, herbicides, hormones and fertilizers into the sea. Pesticides and fertilizers contaminate
and pollute seawater as well as increase the amount of nutrients thus leading to localized
eutrophication. In a study on coastal water characterization, seawater samples from the study area
confirmed contamination of seawater with agricultural pollutants particularly alpha, gamma, beta
and delta BHCs, heptachlor epoxide, endosulfan I, dieldrin, endrin and endsosulfan sulfate, mostly
concentrated around Nahr el Kalb and Beirut river estuaries (El-Fadel et al. 2000).
-
Rivers, in addition to domestic and industrial outfalls, carry upstream pollutants from various
activities and sectors into the sea, including agricultural runoff and sewage. The study area includes
the mouths of three main rivers: Nahr Ibrahim, El Kalb and Beirut with average flow of 10.49, 6.07
and 2.64 m3/s respectively. All three rivers are seasonal with irregular flows and tend to dry up for
at least four months per year (SOER, 2011). A study on the level of pollution at these rivers’ mouths,
undertaken in 2000, revealed elevated levels of BOD, VSS, and chemical pollutants such as arsenic,
lead and chromium (El-Fadel et al. 2000).
3.3.2
Marine-based sources
Marine based sources of pollution, which are sources originating in the sea, are limited in Lebanon to
marine dumping of liquid and solid effluents, potential oil, HNS and chemical spills associated with
shipping accidents and loading and unloading processes. Out of the 8 main ports existing along the
Lebanese coast, only two, the Beirut port and the Tripoli port, have gained regional and international
importance, particularly in terms of their size, traffic, and type of services. The Beirut port, located
within the studied coastal area, is the busiest port in Lebanon. Figure 15 shows the maritime traffic in
the exclusive economic zone of Lebanon for the last semester in 2013, including those heading to
Lebanon or just shipping through (Marine Traffic, 2013). It shows the high flux of ships into Beirut Port
as well as a strong activity between Beirut and Dbayeh and, to a lesser extent, in Jounieh and Byblos
ports. Accordingly, marine pollution, including discharge of wastewater, ballast water, leakage of oil
among others, is expected to be of more concern along these routes.
In view of the upcoming oil and gas discovery offshore Lebanon, new threats to the marine environment
are expected to arise particularly related to the construction and operation of offshore installations,
threats of oil spills, accidents, and blow-outs. Lebanon has already experienced a major oil spill incident,
the Jiyeh thermal power plant spill in 2006. The incident originated onshore due to the Israeli bombing
of fuel storage facilities in Jiyeh that resulted in the largest oil spill in the eastern basin of the
Mediterranean. While the spill was a result of hostilities rather than an accident, it hit Lebanon hard
polluting rocky and sandy beaches, ports, wharfs and ports as well as protected areas, archeological sites
and touristic establishments along the whole coast; reaching the Syrian coastline. The total
environmental damage of the oil spill was estimated at 200M USD (WB, 2007).
28
Figure 15 Maritime traffic in the Lebanese waters
3.3.3
Physical alterations
Physical alterations are very common along the Lebanese coastline apparent in the fragmentation of
habitats, erosion of sandy beaches and complete loss of the natural topography of the shoreline (UNEPROWA, 2012). Tourism, besides rampant urbanization, continues to be a major contributor to physical
alterations, specifically through soil and land degradation, loss of the natural landscape, and pressures
on local natural resources. This is mainly observed in GBA, Jounieh and Dbayeh and to a lesser extent
in Byblos, where reclaimed lands have altered the coastlines’ geography. Intensive and unregulated sea
filling and breakwaters’ construction has led to the shrinkage of upstream sandy stretches. The
dwindling sandy beach in Ouzaii, as a result of changes in water circulation and decreased sand
recycling and sedimentation due to the airport extension and breakwater, is one of the many outcomes
of these activities. It is expected that the Ouzaii beach and many similar ones will be completely lost as
a result of coastal erosion, amplified by sea water rise and weather events (El-Raey, 2009). In fact,
Lebanese beaches are all suffering from coastal erosion: whereby 8.2%, 45.2% and 24% of rocky, sandy
and gravel beaches respectively, have been reported to experience erosion between 1963 and 2003 (Abi
Rizk, 2005)..
29
4. Coast of Provence (France)
4.1 Physical Characterization
4.1.1
Coast Features
Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur (PACA) region is the studied coastal area along the southern coasts of
France on the Mediterranean Sea. PACA stretches over 31,400 km² of land with around 800 km of coast
and consists of 6 regions: the Alpes de Haute Provence, the Alpes Maritimes, the Bouches du Rhône,
the Hautes Alpes, the Var and the Vaucluse region. Only regions of the Bouches du Rhône, the Var and
the Alpes Maritimes form the PACA’s littoral zone. More than 80% of PACA’s population (4.8 million
habitants) resides in the littoral zone, mainly in Marseille, Nice and Toulon (Figure 16) (Insee, 2012).
Figure 16 Population density in the PACA region (IGN – Insee, 2012)
The climate in PACA is typically Mediterranean, with hot and dry summers, where the mean
temperature in July is higher than 23°C and the annual rainfall in the lowlands, around the delta of
Rhône, is less than 600 mm. The region is also particularly windy where Mistral, the cold northwesterly
wind, can sometimes be violent. Elevation levels are highly diverse along the coastal zone, varying from
flat wetlands in the Camargue to cliffs in the Calanques areas.
30
4.1.2
Shoreline Typology
Monfort Climent & Terrier (2010) described and identified 4 main types of coastlines in the PACA
region: 1) rocky beaches and cliffs, 2) small sandy beaches or gravel in high elevation landscapes, 3)
small sandy beaches or gravel in low elevation landscapes and 4) large beaches and dunes. For each
category they also distinguished urbanized from natural areas, resulting in 8 different types of coastline
typologies (Figure 17).
Figure 17 Example of shoreline typologies based on the ALDES project (Monfort Climent & Terrier, 2010)
Another classification of the Mediterranean coastline, available through the Eurosion project (2002,
2004), identified four types of typology along the French coastal zone: 1) rocky beaches, 2) sandy and
gravel beaches, including small, large and artificial beaches, 3) artificial zones, like ports and dykes,
and 4) lakeside and sediments coasts (Figure 18).
31
Figure 18 Example of the shoreline typologies based on the Eurosion project (Monfort Climent & Terrier, 2010).
4.1.3
Archeological, Sensitive and Protected sites
The French study area includes two National Parks: Calanques and Port Cros (Figure 19). The National
Park of Calanques, a peri-urban area with calcareous cliffs, has a terrestrial core area of 8500 ha, and a
buffer area of 2630 ha. Calanques includes 43,500 ha of protected marine areas. The core of the National
Park of Port Cros has a terrestrial area of 1700 ha (falling entirely in islands) and a marine area of 2900
ha where a potential buffer area of 23,000 ha in the continental coast near Hyères is currently under
study. Limiting the eastern border of the study area is the external belt of the Camargue Regional Park,
an area where wetlands and sustainable agriculture coexist. Other types of protection forms exist in
smaller areas within the French study site: a) at the international level: Natura 2000 sites; b) at the
national level: National Nature Reserves and Biological Reserves, as well as vulnerable areas purchased
by the Conservatoire du Littoral (Coastline and Lakeshore Protection Agency) to ensure their protection
while maintaining public access; and c) at the Department level: Biotope Protection Orders (Figure 19).
32
Figure 19 Sensitive and Protected sites within the studied zone
4.2 Human Pressures
4.2.1
Agricultural Activities
Agricultural activities occupy only about 10% of the coastal area included in the PACA study site
(OCSOL 2006). Vineyard is the major crop in most of the area (c.a. 45%), except in the central area
between Cap Sicié and Hyères and in the easternmost areas where market gardening and pastures
(benefiting from the Rhone Delta) prevail respectively (CRIGE 2000).
4.2.2
Urbanization
The study area has a mean population density of 585 inhabitants per km2 (BD_TOPO, 2013). It is
influenced by two metropolitan areas that are, at the same time, the 2nd and 5th largest cities in France:
Marseille-Aix-Etang de Berre to the west, and Nice-Cannes outside the study area but adjacent to its
eastern limit (Figure 20), and by a major urban area, Toulon, an emergent metropolis (Toulon-Hyères)
but with declared intention by the Public Administration to limit its future expansion (SRADDT 2014).
According to the 'Observatoire Régional Eau et Milieux Aquatiques en PACA' (ARPE 2014), the large
urban poles hosted 81% of the population in the PACA region in 2008.
There is an almost continuum urban fabric along the coast over a band, approximately 2 km wide,
creating a chain of intersecting urban nuclei. Beyond this littoral band, urban areas expand over flatter
areas, particularly in the metropolitan area of Marseille, continuously up to 30 km inland (Figure 20).
Along the littoral, there is dominance of residential urbanization due to both tourism activity and
retirement migration (SRADDT 2014).
33
Figure 20 Urbanization pressure within the studied zone in France
In the studied area there are 27 treatment plants directly discharging into the sea, 13 of which with a
capacity to treat wastewaters of more than 50,000 inhabitant (ARPE 2012).
4.2.3
Tourism
The PACA Region, being the second most important touristic region in France, plays a central role in
the regional economy. The Region receives, on average, 31 million tourists per year, where tourists and
non-permanent inhabitants can increase the population in some areas during the peak season by 71%
(SRADDT 2014). The second most important airport in France (Nice Côte d’Azur) is only at 60 km
from the eastern limit of the study area, hosting 10 million passengers per year (SRADDT 2014).
4.2.4
Industrial Facilities
The main industrial activities in the study area are located around Fos-sur-Mer (industrial port area) and
Berre l’Etang, west of the study area (Figure 21). In these zones, there are four oil refinery plants with
a capacity of 29 Mt in 2013, representing 37% of the total French capacity (Union Française des
industries pétrolières). Oil refineries generate wastes rich in hydrocarbons, cadmium and nitrogen
(DRIRE PACA, 2004). In this area, the petrochemical and chemical industrial activities are also
important, generating wastes with organic halogen compounds and other heavy metals such as mercury
(DRIRE PACA, 2004). Iron and steel metallurgical industry in the area around Berre l’Etang produces
approximately a quarter of the total French steel production. This industry generates waste rich in heavy
metals such as lead and chromium (DRIRE PACA, 2004). Other industrial activities are concentrated
in this area, among which the aeronautic industry stands out. In parallel, there is a thermal power plant
in the area and the development of offshore wind energy is foreseen in the future (SRADDT 2014).
34
The port of Marseille, located within the studied area, ranks first in France and fifth in Europe (SRADDT
2014). Accordingly, the associated maritime industry has a relatively considerable load on the region,
where the total number of handled containers exceeds that of the average European ports by 7% (with
strategic plans targeting a further increase) and with a total warehouse area of 462,000 m² in 2014. Two
platforms for multi-modal transport exist in the study area (Marseille-Mourepiane and Marseille-Canet)
serving 400 ports around the world where 78 million tons of merchandise were handled in 2014. The
cruise market has also undergone considerable growth in the last years, with more than one million
passengers reported in 2013 (Marseille port, 2014).
The ship-repair industry also has a key role in the regional economy (SRADDT 2014). The shipyard in
the port of Marseille has the biggest dry dock in Europe, and the harbour of Toulon also accounts for
considerable activity in this domain, with 60% of the world’s yacht fleet being repaired there; in addition
to an important Mediterranean naval base shipyard.
Figure 21 Industrial facilities within the PACA studied zone in France
4.3 Environmental Pollution
4.3.1
Land-based sources
Land-based sources of pollution along the studied coastal area mainly consist of domestic and industrial
discharges along with runoff from surrounding watersheds. Information and maps about the land-based
sources in the studied area are based on the analyses conducted by the National Water Agency regarding
the direct sources of dangerous substances in the Mediterranean Sea, identifying the following sources
(Boissery et al., 2011):
35
-
Domestic/urban wastewater: approximately 1.4 million EH (Habitant-Equivalent at 60g of
BOD5/day), 79% of which is produced by the most populated communities and cities
(Montpellier, Marseille, Toulon, Cannes, Nice) (Figure 22) along the French Mediterranean
coast. There are 254 outfalls in proximity to the coastal zone, 60 of which discharge untreated
wastewater directly into the Mediterranean Sea. Figure 22 illustrates the evaluation of
wastewater pollution, based on the direct discharge of wastewater treatment plants in the
Mediterranean region. Yellow, orange and red zones denote areas of medium to high discharge
whereas light and dark blue areas represent areas of relatively low discharge.
Figure 22 Discharge of water treatment plants along the studies area in France (Boissery et al., 2011)
-
Industrial outfalls, where there are 12 outfalls of industrial wastewater discharging in the French
Mediterranean region, most of which are situated in the Bouches du Rhône area. According to
the report of the French Water Agency, the concentrations of industrial pollutants discharged in
the Mediterranean Sea reached 154,338 t/yr in organic suspended matter, 432 t/yr in biochemical
oxygen demand (BOD5), 259 t/yr in Ammonia (Nt) and 25 t/yr in orthophosphate (Pt).
-
Runoff from surrounding watersheds represents an indirect source of marine pollution that is not
directly discharged in the sea but diffused through rivers and soil infiltration. According to the
36
National Water Agency, the estimation of this source of pollution not only includes human
activities like industries and agriculture but also pluvial and outfall sources that are not
discharged into the sea. Figure 23 presents the estimation of pollution from the surrounding
watersheds where categories of pollution input are illustrated in blue to red colors representing
low to high pollution levels respectively. It is to be noted that the Rhone River has a particular
influence on the water quality in the region.
Figure 23 Indirect discharges coming from the surrounding watersheds (Boissery et al., 2011)
4.3.2
Marine-based sources
There are 137 small marinas (only for touristic and leisure activities) in the French Mediterranean
region. The PACA region is the most affected region in France with this source of pollution. Figure 24
illustrates marine pollution related to the marinas' activities (for detailed explanations about this
estimation please refer to Boissery et al., 2011).
37
Figure 24 Pollution sources from ports (Boissery et al., 2011)
The METOX index summarizes the estimated values of eight major non-biodegradable pollutants:
arsenic, mercury, cadmium, plumb, nickel, copper, chrome and zinc. The National Water Agency used
the METOX index to localize 167 costal zones that receive high amounts of such major pollutants
(Figure 25).
38
Figure 25 Metox Index (Boissery et al., 2011)
4.3.3
Physical alterations
The PACA region is considered to be among the areas most exposed to erosion in Europe (Eurosion,
2004). This high risk is due to the synergy between human pressures, i.e. high population densities living
at the coastal zone and the presence of industrial zones (Eurosion, 2004). In order to restrain erosion in
the urban, touristic and industrial zones, dykes, wave deflectors and other hard defence infrastructures
were built along the French Mediterranean coastline, mainly between the 1970s and the 1990s.
39
5 Coast of Cagliari (Italy)
The Italian study area is the Gulf of Cagliari. It is located in Southern Sardinia and extends from Cape
Spartivento (38°52'40.31''N and 8°50'44.1''E) in the west to Cape Carbonara (39°06'18''N and
9°30'53''E) in the east (Figure 26). The Gulf hosts habitats of 'Priority and Community interest' under
the Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC) and includes a number of nature reserves. The outstanding
environmental value of the Gulf co-exists with a major port, one of the largest refineries in Europe
(Sarroch), the city of Cagliari, with more than 150,000 inhabitants, as well as popular beaches
frequented by Cagliari’s inhabitants throughout the year and by tourists in the summer.
Figure 26 Location of the studied Italian coastal zone
5.1 Physical Characterization
5.1.1
Coast Features
The coastline of the Gulf of Cagliari stretches about 100 km along the 1900 km of the Sardinian coastline
(Ginesu, 1986). It comprises of capes and islands, wetlands and sandy beaches representing a complex
system of high natural and landscape value, subject to strong anthropogenic pressures generated mainly
from touristic activities. In particular, the whole coast from Cape Carbonara to the shoreline of Quartu
40
Sant' Elena is affected by strong urbanization where tourist facilities line up along the entire coastal
road. After the city of Cagliari and up to the industrial complex of Sarroch, the coastline is characterized
by the lagoon areas and the long sandy beach of La Maddalena (about 4 km). From Sarroch to Cape
Spartivento, the coast is mostly rugged, with the exception of Santa Margherita di Pula sandy beach.
The mean water temperature in the Gulf of Cagliari ranges from a minimum of 12°C in the winter to a
maximum of 26°C in the summer, with occasional peaks of 30°C. The climate is warm Mediterranean
(sub-tropical) characterized by few rainfall, less than 500 mm/yr (Pinna, 1971; Raimondi et al, 1995).
The water salinity is about 37-38 ‰ (Metallo, 1971; Mosetti, 1977).
5.1.2
Shoreline Typology
The shoreline of the Gulf of Cagliari is partly sandy and partly rocky. It is a slightly jagged coastline
with few inlets. The cliffs consist of granite or shale rock formations present at the Sulcis massif to the
west, at the Sarrabus massif to the east, and the Sant’Elia promontory in the centre. Several small
beaches are scattered along the coastline in small inlets that alternate with cliff stretches. The most
important beach in terms of extension and number of visitors is Poetto, a natural strip of 8 km. The main
shoreline types present in the Gulf are reported below (from west to east):
-
-
-
-
Cape Spartivento: it is a rocky promontory consisting of rocks essentially granite and gneiss that
emerge in the head;
Su Giudeu and S’Acqua Durci, Campana Pontile and Campana, Monte Cogoni, Bithia, Sa
Colonia, Su Portu and s’Isula Manna beach systems: which include large parts of beaches and
relatively vast dune fields (which play a key role in maintaining the balance of marine-coastal
morpho-dynamics);
Stangioni de Su Sali, Campana, and Chia coastal wetlands and the Rio Chia river mouth which
are in a functional and ecological relation with the systems of beaches and dune fields;
Headlands of Cape S’Isulottu, Campana, Monte Cogoni, Torre di Chia and Su Cardolino (which
divide the characteristic coastal sandy system of Chia into wide bays that include the islets of Su
Giudeu and Su Cardolinu with vast dune fields and wet basins that differ from the coastal rocky
system between Su Cardolino and Pinus Village);
A wide sandy strip between Porto de su Scovargiu and Forte Village (ranging from the small
port of Cala Verde and Cala Bernardini) followed by a short stretch of mostly rocky coastline
that stretches up to Port de su Scovargiu. Extensive tourism infrastructure is noted close to the
area of the beach.
The predominantly rocky coastal area between Forte Village and Cala d’Ostia;
The sandy coast of Santa Margherita between the coastline of Cala d'Ostia and Punta d’Agumu
and the pebble and rocky coastline that stretches up to Punta d'Agumu;
The coastal system of Nora, a result of the interactions between lithological, structural and
eustatic parameters, which resulted in an extremely articulate environmental system;
The Bay of Sant' Efisio characterized by a sandy strip extended to the promontory of Punta Santa
Vittoria and bounded internally by tourist infrastructure;
41
-
-
5.1.3
The Foxi Durci beach (which develops at the mouth of the Rio di Pula for about one kilometre,
stretching from the headland of Punta Furcadizzo up to other small rocky outcrops in front of
the small island of San Macario);
The stretch of rocky coastline ranging from Punta Ballast and the mouth of Channel Peppino
(extending about 3 km) characterized by cliffs and rocky stretches sloping towards the sea;
The Pond of Cagliari wetland and the Lagoon of Santa Gilla, located at the southernmost
extremity of the plain of Campidano;
The complex coastal area of Poetto and Molentargius wetlands;
The coastal plain of the Foxi-Capitana sector;
The littoral system and the beaches of the Gulf of Carbonara up to Capo Boi;
The beach and dunes of Campu Longu;
The beaches of Porto Giunco in Simius and the pond of Notteri;
The promontory of Cape Carbonara and the smaller islands of Cavoli and Serpentara, that
represent the morphological unit which closes the south coastal system of Sarrabus (Regione
Sardegna, 2006a).
Archeological, Sensitive and Protected sites
The coastal areas of the Gulf of Cagliari were inhabited since the Neolithic period. Numerous findings
attributable to that period have been found in the Sant’ Elia promontory (Regione Sardegna, 2015). The
most important archaeological site that arises in the Gulf is the city of Nora, dating back to the
Phoenician-Punic and Roman periods. Furthermore, in the municipality of Sarroch stands the Nuraghe
Antigori, built in the second millennium BC, famous for the discovery of Mycenaean pottery.
Additionally, an archaeological site of the Phoenician period (2nd century BC) is present in the
necropolis in Cagliari on the Tuvixeddu hill, in addition to other sites of the Roman period including
the Villa Tigellio, the Amphitheater and the Hypogeum of Attilia Pomptilla (2nd century AC). Finally,
it is to be noted that several towers (Tower of Chia, Tower of Coltellazzo, Tower of Cala d'Ostia, Tower
of San Macario, Tower of Ulivi, Tower of Diavolo, Tower Sa Scafa, Tower of Sant’Elia, Tower of
Segnali, Tower de su Perdusemini, Tower of Poetto, Tower of Cala Regina, Tower of Carcangiolas,
Tower of Foxi, Tower of Is Mortorius, Tower of Sant'Andrea, Tower of Su Fenugu, Tower of Capo Boi,
and Fortezza Vecchia tower) exist along the coast as erected by the Aragonese in order to monitor the
Saracen incursions.
In terms of biodiversity, the Gulf of Cagliari is characterized by several sensitive and natural protected
areas including:
-
2 Ramsar sites (Figure 27)
1 Marine protected area (MPA) of Capo Carbonara (Figure 28);
14 Natura 2000 sites: 4 Special Protection Areas (SPAs) under the Birds Directive
2009/147/EC(Figure 29)
 ITB043026 “Isola Serpentara;
 ITB043027 “Isola dei Cavoli”;
42



ITB043028 “Capo Carbonara and stagno di Notteri - Punta Molentis”;
ITB044002 “Saline di Molentargius”;
ITB044003 “Stagno di Cagliari”.
And 10 Sites of Community Importance (Figure 30):










ITB040020 - Isola dei Cavoli, Serpentara, Punta Molentis and Campulongu;
ITB042230 - Porto Campana;
ITB042242 - Torre del Poetto;
ITB042243 - Monte Sant'Elia, Cala Mosca and Cala Fighera;
ITB042231 - Tra Forte Village and Perla Marina;
ITB042216 - Capo di Pula;
ITB040051 - Bruncu de Su Monte Moru - Geremeas (Mari Pintau);
ITB040021 - Costa di Cagliari;
ITB040022 - Stagno di Molentargius and neighbouring areas;
ITB040023 - Stagno di Cagliari, Saline di Macchiareddu, Laguna di Santa Gilla.
Figure 27 Ramsar sites along the Gulf of Cagliari
43
Figure 28 Marine protected areas along the Gulf of Cagliari
Figure 29Special Protection Areas in the Gulf of Cagliari
44
Figure 30 Sites of Community importance along the Gulf of Cagliari
5.2 Human Pressures
5.2.1
Agricultural Activities
Agricultural activities along the studied coastal zone relate to livestock rearing, agricultural and food
processing, viticulture, dairy production as well as farming in greenhouses and open fields (Regione
Sardegna, 2006a). Table 2 summarizes the agricultural areas present in the Gulf of Cagliari, classified
according to the European Corine Land Cover (Eionet, 2012). Agricultural activities are mainly carried
out in the hinterland and are specifically widespread in the marginal areas since urban settlements
dominate the coastal areas. The total agricultural area in the Gulf of Cagliari is 14.09 km2 (Table 2).
45
Table 2 Agricultural areas present along the Gulf of Cagliari
Agricultural area typology
Vineyards
0.92
Fruit trees and berry plantations
2.38
Olive groves
3.41
Pastures
0.04
Annual crops associated with permanent crops
5.2.2
Km2
0
Complex cultivation patterns
3.54
Land principally occupied by agriculture, with significant areas of natural
vegetation
2.72
Agro-forestry areas
1.08
Total
14.09
Urbanization
The Italian coastal areas are characterized by a high percentage of urban settlements and economic and
productive activities. In recent years, these human pressures have considerably altered the natural and
environmental features of the territory. The population density on the coast is far more than double that
of the national average, without accounting for seasonal flows and tourists (ISPRA, 2014). According
to ISTAT (2014), 28% of the Italian population lives permanently in the 644 coastal municipalities
(representing approximately only 14.3% of the national territory). According to WWF Italia (1996),
58% of the Italian coast is characterized by intensive occupation, 13% by extensive occupation, while
29% of areas remain completely uninhabited. Although Sardinia has a high percentage of uninhabited
coastal areas (about 73%), the Gulf Cagliari has a high rate of urbanization. People living along the
coasts of the Gulf are about 300,000. Table 3 summarizes the population within each municipality along
the Gulf.
46
Table 3 Population of coastal municipalities in the Gulf of Cagliari
Inhabitants
(thousands)
Population density
(population/km2)
Cagliari
154.019
1811.77
Quartu Sant'Elena
70.675
733.07
Capoterra
23.850
348.23
Sinnai
17.114
223.80
Maracalagonis
7.836
102.57
Pula
7.319
138.28
Sarroch
5.292
68.07
Villasimius
3.592
57.44
Domus De Maria
1.756
18.08
Municipality
Cagliari is the only big city that overlooks the Gulf. All municipalities that border the Gulf have a
population exceeding 1500 inhabitants. The population density for all municipalities (except Domus De
Maria, Villasimius and Sarroch) is far above the average of Sardinia region (69/km2). This underlines
how urbanization represents an important pressure on the entire Gulf.
5.2.3
Tourism
About 90% of the regional accommodation facilities are located along the coasts of Sardinia, welcoming
about 80% of the tourist flows to the region; being almost full during the summer season, especially in
July and August (Sistu, 2007; Donato and Battino 2009). Therefore, coastal tourism peaks during the
summer season aggravating the existing environmental pressure of human presence. With regards to
tourism in the municipalities that overlook the Gulf of Cagliari, about 511,000 tourists were reported in
2014 (Regione Sardegna, 2014). In terms of tourist accommodation, the Regional Landscape Plan of
Sardinia identifies three distinct areas along the Gulf of Cagliari as follows (Regione Sardegna, 2006a):
-
-
-
Cagliari Orientale area (from 39°06'18''N - 9°30'53''E to 39°13'41.14''N - 9°13'19.07''E):
accommodation and service facilities are located in the municipalities of Quartu Sant’Elena, Sinnai,
Maracalagonis and Villasimius. The latter represents 66% of the total accommodation capacity of
this area with a total of about 12,750 sleeping accommodation (hotel and other accommodations)
(Regione Sardegna, 2006b);
Cagliari area (from 39°13'41.14''N - 9°13'19.07''E to 38°52'40.31''N - 8°50'44.1''E):
accommodation and service facilities are particularly concentrated within the coastal area of the
Sant’Elena, Sinnai e Cagliari municipalities, with the exception of few cases. Specifically for
Cagliari, these facilities are more linked to business traveling and leisure tourism with a total of
about 5500 sleeping accommodation (Regione Sardegna, 2006c);
Nora and Chia areas (from 38°52'40.31''N - 8°50'44.1''E, to 39°09'04.87''N - 9°01'16.33''E):
accommodation and service facilities are located mainly in the municipalities of Pula and Domus
47
de Maria. In this area there are about 15,000 sleeping accommodation facilities where there are
important sites and structures of high of international recognition (i.e. Forte Village which is served
by about 1600 sleeping accommodation) (Regione Sardegna, 2006d; 2006e).
5.2.4
Industrial Facilities
The most important industrial sites in the study area are represented by the Saras oil refinery in Sarroch
and the adjacent petrochemical plants. In 2014, the European Environment Agency listed the mineral,
oil and gas refinery of Saras (in the Sarroch municipality) among the 100 most polluting industrial
facilities in the EU (EEA, 2014). This area is characterized by numerous storage tanks used mainly for
oil storage, but also for chemicals and other hazardous and noxious substances (Figure 31). Also in this
industrial area, an integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) plant is present which serves the Saras
refinery. The IGCC plant is one of the world’s largest cogeneration plants (second largest in Europe). It
produces more than 550 MW and 185 tons of steam from three single shaft combined cycle units (Jones
and Shilling, 2003). Its daily tonnage (plant at full capacity) is equal to 3,500 ton/day and its input is
traditionally made up of 100% Vacuum Visbroken Residue (TAR).
Figure 31 The Saras facility and IGCC plant along the Gulf of Cagliari
Other industrial facilities along the coastline include:
-
-
Airport: the Cagliari-Elmas "Mario Mameli" International Airport is located close to the
metropolitan area of Cagliari. It is the airport with the highest number of passengers and activity in
the Sardinia region. In 2014, the total number of passengers (arriving/departing) was about
3,640,000 (Assaeroporti, 2015).
Ports: A number of ports, marinas and fishermen wharfs are present along the analyzed coastal area.
The Port of Cagliari, one of the largest ports in Italy, is a commercial junction and a strategic key
from over 2500 years given its central position in the Mediterranean Sea. In 2013, it was the third
Italian port for goods traffic in tonnage per year (Assoporti, 2013). It stretches over a total area of
0.55km2 and is protected by two outer wharfs. It is divided into three basins:

The commercial port (old port), inside the city, is mainly characterized by passenger, ro/ro
48


goods, solid bulk (specifically grains and minerals) and cruise traffics. It is divided in two
areas with different functional characteristics: the western basin is mainly dedicated to
commercial activities, while the eastern basin is only intended for recreational boating,
fishing fleet, shipbuilding and landing of military ships;
The industrial port (or "channel port") is specialized in receiving and handling containers,
mainly transhipment, and marginally cabotage;
The Oil Terminal located in the municipalities of Capoterra and Sarroch, where about 25
million tons of liquid bulk is handled: mainly oil products and chemicals to a lesser extent
(SardegnaMobilità, 2015).
Four major marinas (Villasimius with 750 boat capacity, Capitana, Marina Piccola, Columbu-Perd’e
Sali) are spread from Cape Carbonara to Cape Spartivento, mostly associated with touristic
establishments. In addition, some fishermen wharfs are identified along the studied area.
5.3 Environmental Pollution
5.3.1
Land-based sources
Among the land-based sources of pollution along the Gulf of Cagliari, the Port of Cagliari and the
industrial district of Sarroch are the most polluting. Sarroch Industry in particular is the largest emitter
of greenhouse gases and air pollutant substances in Sardinia. Other pollution sources are domestic/urban
discharges including wastewater collected from residential units, touristic establishments, hospitals, etc.
Finally, agricultural runoff and sewage running via rivers also contribute to marine pollution.
5.3.2
Marine-based sources
Marine based sources of pollution, which are sources originating in the sea, are limited in the Gulf of
Cagliari to accidental marine dumping of liquid and solid effluents, potential oil, HNS or chemical spills
associated with shipping accidents and loading and unloading processes. Due to the intensive maritime
traffic in the Gulf, the discharge wastes from ships (specifically of oily engine wastes and bilge) from
day-to-day shipping operations pose a serious threat. Furthermore, the great trafficking of hydrocarbons
and chemicals related to Saras refinery, represent a serious threat to coastal marine environments around
the Gulf. Finally, harbors and dockyards are recognized as locations where pollutants can accumulate
in fine sediments, thereby constituting an environmental risk to aquatic life due to potential uptake and
accumulation of heavy metals in the biota (Schintu et al., 2015).
5.3.3
Physical alterations
Generally in Europe, damage to soils from modern human activities is increasing and in turn leads to
irreversible losses due to sealing of soil surfaces, local and wide-spread contamination and soil erosion
(EEA, 2000). In Sardinia, landscape morphology and climate make the island's soils very fragile and
sensitive (Vacca et al., 2002). Specifically in the Gulf of Cagliari, physical alterations are common and
49
apparent in the fragmentations of habitats and the erosion of sandy beaches. The high concentration of
urban and touristic settlements is among the main contributing factors to this phenomenon. Furthermore,
the Gulf of Cagliari suffers from serious coastal erosion; well-developed degradation of beach systems
in addition to erosion of beaches and dunes particularly in the areas of Poetto, in the coast of Torre degli
Ulivi up to Maddalena beach, and in some areas of the eastern part of the Gulf (i.e. Foxi and Saruxi
beaches).
50
6. Coast of Gabes (Tunisia)
The Gulf of Gabès is located in Southeast Tunisia, between 35 °N and 39 °N, Eastern Mediterranean
Sea. Bounded by the Kerkenah islands on the northeast and by the Djerba island on the southeast, the
gulf extends from Ras Kapoudia at 35 °N to the Tunisia-Libyan border (Figure 32). It consists of a very
shallow basin with weak currents, low energy waves, high salinity and bathymetry depths ranging from
20 to 50 m within a 100 km2 area (Ktari Chakroun & Azouz, 1971; Sammari et al., 2006). The Gulf is
a representative example of a coastal zone subject to a multitude of significant and rapidly evolving
pressures from natural and anthropogenic drivers that are recurrent in the Mediterranean coastline.
Figure 32 Location of the Gulf of Gabès study area in Tunisia (adopted from Lamon et al., 2014)
Along the Gulf of Gabès, three areas with different degrees of anthropogenic pressures are studied under
the framework of the GREAT Med project stretching along 183 km of coastline (Figure 33): Mahrès,
Skhira and Djerba Island.
51
Figure 33 Study sites in the Gulf of Gabès under the framework of the GREAT Med project
6.1 Physical Characterization
6.1.1
Coast Features
The Gulf of Gabès extends about 275 km (Oikonomopoulos, 2012) with a continental shelf area of
35,909 km2. It hosts five big cities (Mehdia, Sfax, Gabès, Zarzis and Jerba) and encompasses 18 ports
(Incommet project, 2012). The climate is pre-Saharan to arid characterized by hot, dry summers and
cool, humid winters. However, due to the Sugimoto-Whitehead effect typical of continental shelves
(Gabersek et al. 2007), the Gulf is characterized by a large seasonal variability where the average
monthly temperature ranges between 13°C to 29°C (Lamon et al., 2014). The annual average
precipitation is about 210 mm (El Lakhrach et al. 2012b). As for the water salinity, it ranges from 37.2
to 38 ‰ with a mean of 37.52 ± 0.29 ‰ (Drira, 2009).The Gulf of Gabès presents the second largest
marine ecosystem in the Mediterranean Sea (Ben Rais Lasram, 2013).
6.1.2
Shoreline Typology
The Gulf of Gabès coast is characterized by a sandy and sandy-muddy bottom, favorable to the
development of the marine plant meadows, and a very wide continental shelf with a weak slope (INSTM
and DGEQV 2005).The typology of the studied coastline consists mainly of sand with an important
density of plants. This structure extends from the beaches (sea level) to about 20 m deep (Incommet
project 2012). Beyond these depths, the sedimentology is characterized by the succession of sand and
muddy sand (Ben Othman, 1973).
52
6.1.3
Archeological, Sensitive and Protected sites
The Tunisian coastlines have a rich diversity of landscapes which are widely recognized as high
biodiversity hot spots within the Mediterranean. The Gulf of Gabès offers favorable geomorphological
and climate conditions for the development of a climax community consisting of one of the most
extensive marine habitats and biocoenosis of Posidonia (Lamon et al. 2014). According to INSTM
(2010), this region is the most productive fishing area in Tunisia, as it contributes more than 70% of the
total fish production in the country. Nonetheless, fauna and flora biodiversity is under severe threats
caused by habitat loss and degradation, overfishing and chronic pollution as well as the introduction of
alien species.
Since 1998, the Tunisian government has developed various projects within a national program aiming
to create marine and coastal protected areas. One of these projects was implemented in the north of Sfax
in 2006 addressing the management of the coastal resources of the Gulf of Gabès (Taprura project). This
project is still under way primarily focusing on the decontamination and sea-filling along the coast of
Sfax, which is highly affected by the phosphate industry.
6.2 Human Pressures
6.2.1
Agricultural Activities
Fishing activity in the Gulf is of great importance in Tunisia as it contributes 0.6 % to the national GDP
(Harzallah et al., 2010). The coastal artisanal fishing, which is the most important agricultural activity
in the region, is represented by eight fishing harbors and more than 6500 fishing boats. It provides more
than 20,500 direct jobs, equivalent to 39% of the coastal population (APD, 2009). Unfortunately, nearly
40% of the fishing harbors in the Gulf of Gabès are vulnerable to coastal erosion (MEDD/PNUD, 2007).
In addition to the fishing activity, olive and vegetables' cultivation (cucumber, tomatoes, etc. in
greenhouses) represent a large portion of the agricultural sector in the Gulf of Gabès (Chaffar, Skhira,
Djerba) (Figure 34) where Tunisia is considered the fifth producer of olives in the world (6.54 %) (FAO
2008).
53
Figure 34 Olive cultivation and greenhouses in the Gulf of Gabès
6.2.2
Urbanization
Excessive urbanization, mainly linked to tourism development (hotels, airports, vacation homes), is
concentrated along the coastal areas. It is estimated that about 20% of the population reside within about
10 km of the shore. This urban sprawl and intense anthropogenic development in the Gulf carries
negative effects on the coastal areas (Rabaoui et al., 2013). While urban wastewater is treated before
being discharged into the Gulf, urban solid waste remains semi-controlled or uncontrolled. In 2001,
there were 55 disposal sites, capable of absorbing only 40% of the total generated waste (WB, 2005).
6.2.3
Tourism
In general, touristic establishments in Tunisia are concentrated along the coast. In the Gulf of Gabès,
tourism activities are most highly developed in the Djerba Island which accounts for 24% of the Tunisian
tourism economy (Harzallah et al. 2010). In fact, this island attracts most of the economic activities
associated with tourism (water sports, boating, etc.) as well as with the exploitation of natural resources
(aquaculture, fishing, etc.). So far, the coexistence of these different activities, often not compatible with
each other, coupled with the multiple sources of stressors, (pollution, coastal development, erosion, etc.)
disturbs the stability of the coastal ecosystem and heavily affects their future maintenance
(UNEP/MAP/BLUE PLAN, 2008).
Nonetheless, additional negative impacts from activities related to tourism occur in the Gulf when the
number of visitors exceeds the environment's carrying capacity, especially in the sites of Bordj Kastil
lagoon (Djerba) and Thyna’s salt flats (located in the south of Sfax) which host dunes and salt-tolerant
vegetation that are preferred wintering areas for migratory birds. According to CAS/ASP (2003),
recreational pressures continue to exacerbate environmental impacts due to loss of natural habitats,
increased pressure on the avifauna, degradation of landscapes, soil erosion, increased waste discharges
54
into the sea, and higher pressure on endangered species. Accordingly, it strains water resources and
often leads to cultural disruption.
6.2.4
Industrial Facilities
The Gulf of Gabès, mainly in the cities of Sfax and Gabès, suffers from strong industrialization due to
proliferation of chemical industries particularly for the manufacture of phosphoric acid and fertilizers
(Figure 35; Figure 36). Sfax, today one of the most industrialized cities and the second biggest economic
pole in Tunisia, was the first city to witness installations of industries including the phosphate processing
industry SIAPE (1952), the leading secondary melting factory and soap factories (Ghannem et al, 2010).
In Gabès, industrial activity is represented by the GCT chemical company (Groupe Chimique Tunisien)
built around the commercial port of the city with more than sixty years of experience in the field of
valorization of natural phosphate and the processing of raw materials into intermediary or finished
products (Béjaoui et al., 2004).
Figure 35 Location of the SIAPE factory near the coast along the Gulf of Gabès
55
Figure 36 Location of the GCT industry in Gabès
Such industrialization has spawned great atmospheric emissions and caused water and land pollution in
the region and the neighboring cities by spilling very large quantities of pollutants including phosphorgypsum (approximately 4 million tons per year) and multiple mineral and organic micro-pollutants
(Bejaoui, 2004). Combined with highly contaminated wastes, these pollutants have led to the
transformation of the littoral into a receptacle for various terrigenous rejections greatly enriched with
heavy metals. This, in turn, significantly contributed to the degradation of the biodiversity of the
ecosystem with eutrophication problems, and the disappearance of benthic and planktonic species
(Katlane Essersi et al., 2010). In fact, Serbaji et al. (2012) have demonstrated that the concentration of
some heavy metals such as Cu, Zn, Pb, Cd and Cr largely exceed the threshold effect levels (TEL) which
suggest that, sediments and the sub-surface sediments are both menaced by these metals. Additionally,
untreated wastes and hydrocarbon pollution have been reported from the activities of some oil and gas
fields situated in the Gulf of Gabès such as Didon crude (75 km offshore), El Bibane (18 km offshore)
and Robbana field, which are located on the island of Djerba (Figure 37).
Generally, chemical pollution had negative impacts on the biodiversity and has triggered the
disappearance, or at least the reduction, of flora cover in the Gulf (Darmoul et al. 1980; Darmoul 1988;
El Afli et al. 2001).
56
Figure 37 Oil and gas fields along the coast of the Gulf of Tunisia (Klett 2001).
6.3 Environmental Pollution
6.3.1
Land-based sources
Land-based sources of pollution along the study coastal area consist of:
- Urban discharges: the discharge of domestic solid wastes in the Gulf of Gabès is increasing with the
rapid increase in residents and tourism establishments. It is noticeable that solid waste discharges reach
their maximum levels in the summer season.
- Industrial discharges: large quantities of phospho-gypsum from the phosphoric acid and chemical
industries of Gabès are released into the Gulf of Gabès (Soussi et al., 1995; Louati et al., 2001; Zaghden
et al., 2005). Discharges of the chemical complexes have led to the accumulation of a thick black deposit
on a completely azoic surface (Ben Rais Lasram, 2013). The release of trace metals and fluoride from
phosphate industries increases the environmental pollution. Boukhris et al. (2015) showed a gradient of
fluoride contamination in vegetation linked to the soil fluoride contamination. Generally, fluoride
concentrations higher than 1000 mg/kg could occur in soils affected by anthropogenic inputs such as
phosphate fertilizers (Kabata-Pendias, 2011). In a recent study, fluoride soil concentration in Gabès was
reported at about 1431 ± 289 mg/kg, which indicates high anthropogenic activities in the region,
compared to a plant fluoride content of 272 ± 103 mg/kg, which is extremely high and could cause
enormous damages on the natural vegetation (Boukhris et al, 2015). In fact, the level of fluoride in
vegetation is usually under 10 mg/kg and the maximum recommended limit for fluoride content in hay
and pasture grass is 30 mg/kg (Davison et al., 1983; Arnesen 1997).
57
Seagrass beds (Posidonia oceanica), the most characteristic and important marine ecosystem in the
Mediterranean and especially in the Gulf of Gabès, are endangered by urban settlements and industrial
areas located on the coast due to the potential discharge of sewage, industrial pollutants, fisheries and
nutrient supply via riverine runoff. All these factors negatively affect the water quality and the state of
the ecosystem (Incommet project 2012). The increase of pollution and its impacts on the marine systems
produce changes in the structure and functioning of the benthic communities (Hamza et al., 2000, Louati
et al., 2001, Drira et al., 2008). The industrial activities along the coast of the Gulf of Gabès are
associated with Cadmium pollution that impacts aquatic fauna and flora (Hamza-Chaffai et al., 1995;
Smaoui-Damek et al., 2003; Banni et al., 2007; Barhoumi et al. 2008; Messaoudi et al., 2008) where a
decrease in fish production has been continually observed since 1990 (Hamza-Chaffai et al. 1997, 2003).
It is expected that bioaccumulation is very high along the coastal environments of the Gulf of Gabès
due to its fauna and flora richness, where pollutants accumulate and persist in the ecosystem (Amari,
1984; El Kihel, 1995; Hamza, 2003).
6.3.2
Marine-based sources
Pollution from ports and ships still damages much of the marine environment. Ballast water is also a
main mean for introducing alien species, which threaten marine and coastal biodiversity. Within the
Gulf, the ‘La Skhira’ terminal is the only site in the project area with specific installations that treat
ballast water polluted by hydrocarbons. It receives ballast water mainly from very large international
ships. Moreover, no installation exists in the region to treat water used to wash tanks in ships that carry
chemicals (WB, 2005).
6.3.3
Physical alterations
The Gulf of Gabès is under high vulnerability to coastal erosion particularly in the islands of Kerkennah,
Kneis and Djerba (Table 4). The total linear coastal erosion was estimated at 40 km, corresponding to
4.3 % of the total coastline (MEDD/PNUD, 2007). Coastal retreat occurs at a rate of 0.5 to 1.5 m/year,
reaching 10 m/year in some locations (MEDD/PNUD, 2007).
Table 4 Vulnerability to coastal erosion in the Gulf of Gabès (PNUD/MEDD, 2007)
Coasts slice
Vulnerability index
Chebba to Sfax
3 (moderate)
Kerkennah islands
4 (high)
Inner gulf
3 (moderate)
Southern gulf
4 (high)
Djerba coast
4 (high)
58
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This publication has been produced with the financial assistance of the European Union under the ENPI
CBC Mediterranean Sea Basin Programme. The contents of this document are the sole responsibility
of Sapienza and can under no circumstances be regarded as reflecting the position of the European
Union or of the Programme’s management structures.
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