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2013 2014 19 YE AR S EDITION MUSIC MUSIC Music in the Early 1900s CRAM KIT EDITOR ALPACA-IN-CHIEF Tania Asnes Daniel Berdichevsky ® the World Scholar’s Cup® DO I NG OU RB EST , SO YO U CA N DO YO UR S M US I C CRAM KIT ® I. WHAT IS A CRAM KIT?............................................................. 2 II. CURRICULUM OVERVIEW........................................................ 2 III. BASIC ELEMENTS OF MUSIC THEORY .................................. 3 IV. CLASSICAL MUSIC & MODERNISM......................................... 15 V. EARLY 20TH-CENTURY ‘‘POPULAR’’ MUSIC......................... 24 VI. MUSICAL RESPONSE TO ‘‘THE GREAT WAR’’....................... 37 VII. CRUNCH KIT……………………......................................................... 45 VIII. ABOUT THE AUTHOR.............................................................. 52 BY N I C OL E CH U THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN ‘16 DEDICATED TO CRHS ACADEC, PAST AND PRESENT. DUCK, DUCK… MONGOOSE. © 2013 DEMIDEC --- WWW.DEMIDEC.COM --- WWW.SCHOLARSCUP.ORG MUSIC CRAM KIT | 2 WHAT IS A CRAM KIT? A Word from the Editor COMPETITION APPROACHES… The handful of days before competition can be the most overwhelming. You don’t have enough time to review everything, so you need to study strategically. Cram Kits are designed to help you achieve that goal-----to offer you a quick snapshot of both the most testable and most easily forgotten facts in each event. Of course, they don’t contain all the information on which you could be tested-----it would be impossible to squeeze it all in here in a legible size font, serif or sans serif. For that, you should turn to the original USAD resources, or to the DemiDec Power Guides, which catalogue every testable fact, one bullet at a time. CRAM KIT STRUCTURE The main body of the Cram Kit is filled with charts and diagrams for efficient studying. You’ll also find helpful quizzes to reinforce the information as you review. The concluding Crunch Kit condenses the entire subject into a few final pages of need-to-know facts-----followed by a series of glossary-like lists to help you organize key information. More extensive lists are included in the Music Power Guide, written by the same author with an eye toward comprehensiveness rather than crunch-time effectiveness. CRAMMING FOR SUCCESS A Word from the Author EXPLAINING THE OVERVIEW PIECES OF THE MUSIC PIE SUMMARY This year’s music curriculum is divided into four parts: I: Basic Elements of Music Theory Section I provides basic information about music theory. 20% of test questions should come from this section. Section II focuses on Modernist musical styles and the various art movements that shaped them. 30% of questions should come from this section. Section III discusses the new styles of popular music that emerged in the 20th century. 30% of questions should come from this section. Section IV gives an overview of music during WWI. 20% of questions should come from this section. When you find yourself in a time crunch, you may consider studying the sections separately in the following order: II, III, IV, and I. As time grows shorter, don’t spend too much cramming time memorizing minor details. Make sure you’re comfortable with the big picture first. 20% 30% 20% 30% II. Classical Music & Modernism III: Early 20thCentury "Popular" Music IV: Musical Response to "The Great War" TIME IS TICKING! If you have… A weekend left: read the USAD guide, listen to the CD, and review this cram kit A day left: read a few sections of the USAD guide, listen to the CD, and review this cram kit An hour left: read the cram kit and focus on the crunch kit A minute left: take a deep breath and exhale --- you got this MUSIC CRAM KIT | 3 BASIC ELEMENTS OF MUSIC THEORY Introduction and Instruments DEFINING KEY TERMS THE GOLDEN RULE DEFINITION Music is ‘‘ss ound o rgan ized i n t ime.’’ TYPES OF INSTRUMENTS HORNBOSTEL-SACHS CLASSIFICATIONS Chordophones • Strings vibrate to produce sound MORE BASIC DEFINITIONS THE ‘‘BARE NECESSITIES’’ OF MUSIC Required Common (Optional) Time frame Composer Sound waves Performers Perceptive mind Recording equipment Aerophones • Air column vibrates to produce sound Membranophones • Skin or membrane vibrates to produce sound Idiophones • Instrument itself vibrates to produce sound ELECTROPHONES Later, ethnomusicologists identified ele ctro phones, which require electricity to produce sound. The theremin ranks among the best-known electrophones. ALL IN THE ‘‘FAMILY’’ MAKING MUSIC A composer organizes sounds to create music Human and/or mechanical perfo rmers produce the imagined music Simultaneous composition and performance constitutes im provis at ion PROFESSIONAL MUSIC NERDS Ethnom us ico logis ts study music of other cultures or compare the music of various cultures. C urt S achs an d E rich von Ho rn bo s tel classified four types of instruments: 1. 2. 3. 4. Chordophones Aerophones Membranophones Idiophones String Instruments •Chordophones •Usually bowed or plucked Brass Instruments •Metal aerophones •Performer's buzzing lips vibrate the air column Woodwind Instruments •Aerophones that may require one or two reeds •Performer's breath vibrates air column Percussion Instruments •Membranophones •Idiophones •Chordophones that are struck Keyboard Instruments •Includes the piano MUSIC CRAM KIT | 4 BASIC ELEMENTS OF MUSIC THEORY Musique Concrète, Pitch, and Tuning MUSIQUE CONCRÈTE PITCH PERFECT After World War II, Parisian musicians used wartime technologies to create musique concrete. The trend spread from there. PITCH Live instruments and electrophones produce sounds Music equipment records sounds on tape P itch refers to the relative highness or lowness of a sound. RELATIONSHIP TO FREQUENCY Most pitches consist of multiple frequencies. The lowest (and loudest) frequency forms the f undam ent a l. Higher, fainter pitches called o vertones ‘‘color’’ the fundamental. EQUAL TEMPERAMENT TUNING Composers mechanically edit, manipulate, and recombine sounds By 1750, equal temperament tuning dominated Western music. This system divides the octave into 12 equal parts, creating 12 distinct pitches. Today, this system is so common that most musicians simply assume its use. Loudspeakers "perform" the completed musical collages PROPERTIES OF SOUND An isolated musical sound exhibits four properties. Duration Volume ADJUSTMENTS Two notes that sound identical despite different notation are called enh arm onic pitches In musical notation, f lat (♭) means ‘‘lowered’’ Pitch Timbre In musical notation, s ha rp ( ) means ‘‘raised’’ RAPID REVIEW Sound A LITTLE PHYSICS Sound is a wave of en ergy. The am plit ude determines the decibel level, or the sound’s loudness. The f requen cy of a sound wave determines its pitch. QUESTIONS 1. Broadly defined, what is music? 2. Curt Sachs and Erich von Hornbostel worked as ______. 3. Hornbostel and Sachs would classify an instrument with vibrating strings as a ______. 4. A sound wave’s ______ determines its pitch and its ______ determines its loudness. 5. Which system of tuning does most Western music use? ANSWERS 1. Sound organized in time 2. Ethnomusicologists 3. Chordophone 4. Frequency; amplitude 5. Equal temperament MUSIC CRAM KIT | 5 BASIC ELEMENTS OF MUSIC THEORY Scales and Intervals LEAPS AND BOUNDS SIX SEVEN DEGREES OF SEPARATION THE ORIGINAL 12-STEP PROGRAM The ch rom a ti c s ca le consists of all 12 different pitches in ascending order. SCALES A s cale contains an arrangement of pitches in ascending order. Western scales usually use seven of the twelve pitches. INTERVALS An interva l describes the distance between any two pitches. The h alf s tep (aka s em itone) is the smallest interval. A half step separates any two consecutive pitches in a chromatic scale. # OF HALF STEPS SCALE DEGREES The seven pitches in any Western scale follow a hierarchy of scale degrees. IN TE R VA L (A B BR E V IA T ION ) 1 Half step (V or m2) 2 Whole step (M2) 3 Minor third (m3) 4 Major third (M3) 5 Perfect fourth (P4) 6 Augmented fourth (aug4), diminished fifth (d5), or tritone (TT) 7 Perfect fifth (P5) 8 Minor sixth (m6) 9 Major sixth (M6) 10 Minor seventh (m7) 11 Major seventh (M7) 12 Octave (P8) The important t on ic begins each scale; it sounds like a point of rest Musicians also call the tonic the ‘‘rres t ing t one’’ or ‘‘Do’’ The dom inan t (scale degree 5) is the second most important pitch; it pulls melodies away from tonic The unstable leading tone lies a half step below the tonic; it ‘‘resolves’’ to the more stable tonic SOME MAJOR CONSTRUCTION The seven pitches of a m ajor s cale follow this pattern: Two Whole Steps One Half Step TYPES OF INTERVALS Three Whole Steps Harmonic •Both pitches sound simultaneously Melodic •Pitches sound in succession •Ascending (lower pitch ® higher) •Descending (higher pitch ® lower) One Half Step A major scale can begin on any of the 12 pitches, so 12 different major scales exist. The C m ajo r scale is perhaps the most common. MUSIC CRAM KIT | 6 BASIC ELEMENTS OF MUSIC THEORY More About Scales SOME (NOT SO) MINOR NOTES A THEORY OF RELATIVITY MINOR SCALE R elativ e major and minor scales contain the same pitches but begin on different tonics. P aralle l major and minor scales begin and end on the same tonic pitches. Three types of minor scale exist: natural, harmonic, and melodic. All three include a lowered third scale degree. THE NATURAL MINOR SCALE One Whole Step One Half Step Two Whole Steps One Half Step One Whole Step UNNATURAL DEVELOPMENTS A whole step separates scale degree 7 from the tonic in a natural minor scale Thus, the natural minor scale lacks a leading tone The h armonic mino r scale raises scale degree 7 to create a leading tone This alteration creates an augmented second between scale degrees 6 and 7 The melodic m inor s cale eliminates this awkward interval by raising scale degree 6 as well as 7 MINOR SCALE LOWERED SCALE DEGREES RAISED SCALE DEGREES Na tu r al 3, 6, 7 N/A Ha r mo n i c 3, 6 7 M e lo d i c 3 6, 7 (ascending) FEELING BLUE A b lues sc ale combines characteristics of major and minor scales. Such a scale typically uses pitches between the keys of a piano, called b lues i nf lect ions. SCALING MOUNTAINS OF PROGRESS QUESTIONS 1. A(n) ______ describes the difference between any two pitches. 2. The first note in a Western scale is known as the ______, the ______, or ______. 3. All minor scales contain a lowered ______ scale degree. 4. ______ major and minor scales contain the same seven pitches. ANSWERS 1. Interval 2. Tonic; resting tone; “Do” 3. Third 4. Relative MUSIC CRAM KIT | 7 BASIC ELEMENTS OF MUSIC THEORY Melody, Range, and Rhythm MELODY, CONTOUR, RANGE A THEORY OF RELATIVITY MELODY A melody consists of a sequence of individual pitches. Only one pitch sounds at a time. TERMS TO KNOW To tran s pos e a melody… 1. Start the melody on a different note 2. Keep the sequence of intervals constant 3. The melody remains recognizable SHAPING UP C ontour describes a melody’s shape or profile. Conjunct •Smooth, stepwise •Mostly whole and half steps TERM DEFINITION R hy th m Audible set of durations B e at A steady underlying pulse T e m po The beat's speed M e te r Organizes beats into groups M e asu r e s/ B a r s Groups of strong/weak beats D o w n be a t First beat in a measure A n a cr u s is / ’’Pickup n otes’’ Note(s) that occur before the first beat of a measure T i m e s i g n at u re Indicates the meter TERMINI ITALIANI: TEMPO Composers commonly include Italian terms in musical scores to indicate tempo. They also use Italian phrases to denote changes in tempo. Disjunct •More "leaps" •Intervals larger than major second ITALIAN TERM P r est o A lle g ro M o d e r ato HOME, HOME ON THE RANGE… R an ge describes the highest and lowest possible notes on an instrument (including the human voice). The high, middle, and low regi ste rs refer to the different parts of an instrument’s range. TESSITURA A piece with high tessitura involves more pitches in the high register than the middle or low registers This Italian term typically describes vocal music A n d an te A dag i o Le n to ( Gr av e ) R i t ar d an d o DEFINITION Very fast Fast Moderate ‘‘Walking speed’’ Slow Very slow Slow down A c c e l e r a n do Speed up P o co a p o c o Gradually S u b ito Suddenly MUSIC CRAM KIT | 8 BASIC ELEMENTS OF MUSIC THEORY Meters SIMPLE AND COMPOUND INTEREST METERS 90S BOY BANDS? ‘‘*N SYNC’’ NANO-REVIEW R hythm involves an audible series of notes of varying lengths. Meanwhile, b eat refers to a steady underlying pulse; though felt, it is not always heard. A m eter groups beats into patterns of strong and weak beats. Synco pat io n involves emphasis on weak beats or notes between beats. ANATOMY OF A TIME SIGNATURE Top Number: Beats per Measure Time Signature Bottom Number: Length of the Beat NOT SO SIMPLE ANYMORE, IS IT? The top number indicates the number of beats per measure in simple meter Bottom numbers of 2 or 4 usually indicate simple meter A compound meter (like 6/8) divides beats into three parts The top number instead indicates the number of subdivisions per measure The bottom number indicates the length of each subdivision MIXING THINGS UP M ixed m eter features a rapid-fire sequence of different meters. Ir regul ar m et er (or as ym met rica l met er) alternates two different meters in an erratic pattern. NON-SCIENTIFIC METERS AND MEASURES POLY- (WANTS A CRACKER) P oly meter occurs when two or more meters operate simultaneously in a piece. P olyrhyth m occurs when two different rhythmic patterns appear simultaneously in a piece. QUESTIONS 1. A(n) ______ melody moves in whole and half steps. 2. A note that occurs before the first beat of a measure is called a(n) ______. 3. Which Italian term denotes “walking speed”? 4. ______ meter divides beats into three parts. 5. Which term describes an emphasis on weak beats or notes between beats? ANSWERS 1. Conjunct, 2. Anacrusis, 3. Andante 4. Compound, 5. Syncopation MUSIC CRAM KIT | 9 BASIC ELEMENTS OF MUSIC THEORY Harmony CHORDS AND TRIADS KEYS TO SUCCESS COMMON GROUND Two or more pitches sounding at once produce h arm ony. An organizational system known as co m mon-pract ice t onal ity governs the harmonies in most Western music. This method developed in the Middle Ages and became prevalent by 1750. CHORDS AND TRIADS C ho rds involve three or more simultaneous pitches. A triad contains exactly three notes arranged in two intervals of a third each. Fifth Highest note Third Middle note Root Lowest Note TYPES OF TRIADS TRIAD ROOT-THIRD THIRD-FIFTH M aj o r Major Third Minor Third M i no r Minor Third Major Third D i m in i sh e d Minor Third Minor Third A u g m en te d Major Third Major Third TRADING SPACES (INVERSIONS) BOTTOM NOTE CHORD POSITION R oo t Root position ( ) Th ird First inversion ( Fi f t h TERMS TO KNOW Diatonic: pitches from within the key ANATOMY OF A TRIAD Triad KEYS: FAST FACTS A key determines the pitch relationships within a piece or section of music Keys center around the tonic pitch of a scale (for instance, the key of D or the key of C minor) They mostly use the seven pitches of the corresponding scale ) Second inversion ( ) Chromatic: pitches from outside the key THE CIRCLE OF LIFE FIFTHS A key signa tu re designates a key by using sharps and flats to indicate which notes will be consistently raised or lowered throughout the piece. The circl e o f f ift hs visually represents the relationship between major keys. MUSIC CRAM KIT | 10 BASIC ELEMENTS OF MUSIC THEORY Harmonic Progression MOVING ON STILL MOVING… CH-CH-CH-CH-CHANGES A h arm onic progress ion involves a series of chords that move from dis so nan ce (tension) to cons onan ce (resolution). FOLLOW THE LEADER Composers often invert chords to create smoother voi ce lea din g. Three people can sing the top, middle, and bottom notes in a progression without leaping excessive intervals. LIKE NAILS ON A CHALKBOARD MORE BASS LINE One extremely dissonant interval in music contains three whole tones (whole steps). The aptly named triton e lends a particularly tense sound to a chord. Musicians call the lowest ‘‘voice’’ in a chord progression the b as s line. It typically contains the root of the chord. DID YOU KNOW? Composers create s eventh ch o rds by adding a seventh above the root to any triad. The do m inan t s event h c hord contains scale degrees 5, 7, 2, and 4. It contains a tritone and pulls strongly to the tonic. MORE ABOUT CHORDS Spread-out chords are in open pos ition. Chords with pitches very close together are in close d pos ition. SWAPPING OUT DIATONIC TRIADS Diatonic triads use only the pitches in the key The ton ic triad (I) is the most stable and most important; it is always major in a major key The dominan t triad (V) is the second most important; it resolves to the tonic Capital Roman numerals (I, IV, V) represent major triads Lowercase numerals (ii, iii, vi) represent minor triads The diminished vii° triad is highly unstable The supertonic (ii) and subdo minan t (IV) form p r e d o m i n a n t h a r mo n i e s MOST COMMON CHORD PROGRESSION Predominant (II or IV) Dominant (V) Tonic (I) Composers sometimes alter one or two pitches in a triad, causing m odal m ixtu re. Usually, these alterations occur between parallel keys. To m odula te means to change keys. MAKING PROGRESS(IONS) QUESTIONS 1. ____ is two or more pitches sounding simultaneously. 2. Two minor thirds stacked on top of one another create a ______ triad. 3. The supertonic and subdominant serve as ______. 4. Modal mixture usually occurs between ______ keys. ANSWERS 1. Harmony 2. Diminished 3. Predominant harmonies 4. Parallel MUSIC CRAM KIT | 11 BASIC ELEMENTS OF MUSIC THEORY Assorted Elements of Musical Sound TEXTURE AND INSTRUMENTATION DYNAMICS AND ARTICULATION SOFT, ROUGH, OR FLUFFY? Dyn am ics refers to the relative loudness or softness of a sound. Articul at ion involves the mechanics of starting and ending a sound. Textu re describes the number of layers in a piece of music and how those layers interact. FOUR TEXTURES IN WESTERN MUSIC Monophony •One melody, no accompaniment •Same pitches at the same time (unison) Heterophony •One melody with simultaneous variations Homophony •Melody with subordinate accompaniment Polyphony •Two or more melodic lines •Possible because of counterpoint (a complex system of combining melodic lines) MAKING ARRANGEMENTS An arran ger takes an existing piece and divides it among different individual voices. INSTRUMENTATION In s trumentation refers to the instrument(s) a composer uses in a piece Each instrument possesses a unique sound, or t i m b re FACTORS AFFECTING TIMBRE Relative strength of overtones Density and thickness of instrument material Amount of resonance MUSIC CRAM KIT | 12 BASIC ELEMENTS OF MUSIC THEORY Musical Form BUILDING BLOCKS Memory and anticipation Tension and release Audience's Listening Experience COMMON FORMS CAPTAIN OBVIOUS TO THE RESCUE R epetit ion involves repeating the exact same pitches, rhythms and harmonies. If a short motive repeats at a different pitch level, a sequen ce results. CAPTAIN OBVIOUS TO THE RESCUE R epetit ion involves repeating the exact same pitches, rhythms and harmonies. If a short motive repeats at a different pitch level, a sequen ce results. FORM Fo rm refers to the overall organization of a musical piece. Like architecture, form combines smaller units to create a larger structure. Motives •The smallest unit of form •Smallest noticeable repeating musical idea Phrases •Present unified musical ideas •Usually end in a cadence •Often appear in related pairs Themes •Phrases combine to form themes •Themes create coherent melodies SHAKIN’ IT UP --- VARIATION FORMS Repetition with significant alterations creates v aria t ion. The listener notices both continuity and contrast. TYPES OF VARIATIONS Th eme an d v ariat ions form varies a set melody 12 -b ar b lues vary the melody over a 12-measure chord progression Jazz performers spontaneously vary a melody over a steady accompaniment in im prov is ation CONTRAST AND DEVELOPMENT In tern ary (three-part) form, two very similar sections frame a contrasting middle section. Another form using contrast, 32 -ba r f orm, frequently appears in the choruses of popular songs. A LITTLE POTPOURRI Piece •As a whole, the piece follows a certain form •It consists of one or more themes REST STOP Musical resting points are called caden ces. They appear at the end of most musical phrases, themes, and pieces. A h alf caden ce ends on a dominant (V) harmony; this progression results in an inconclusive sound. The f ull (authentic) caden ce resolves from the dominant to the tonic; it sounds far more final. QUESTIONS 1. Which term describes the mechanics of starting and ending a sound? 2. Many phrases end in a(n) ______. 3. A _______ occurs when a short motive repeats at a different pitch level. 4. The ____________ form varies a melody over a 12measure chord progression. ANSWERS 1. Articulation 2. Cadence 3. Sequence 4. 12-bar blues MUSIC CRAM KIT | 13 BASIC ELEMENTS OF MUSIC THEORY Musical Form (continued) FUGUES AND SONATAS JUST A ‘‘FUGUE’’ FACTS Though not a form in itself, f ugue largely determines the form of a piece This technique centers on a single theme called a f u gu e s u b je ct Scholars refer to a companion theme, if any, as the c o u n t e r s u bj e c t Fugal technique relies on im it at ion and count erpo int COPYCAT Im i tation approximately repeats a melodic idea at a different pitch level. SONATA FORM The first movements of multi-movement works frequently exhibit s ona t a f orm. Early on, it was known solely as ‘‘first movement form.’’ Exposition SONATA CYCLES Long classical compositions often include three or four shorter pieces called m ovem en ts. The most common multi-movement form is the s ona ta cy cle. THREE-MOVEMENT VERSION 1. Fast sonata 2. Slow ternary 3. Fast sonata or rondo FOUR-MOVEMENT VERSION Pre-19th Century 19th Century 1. Fast sonata 1. Fast sonata 2. Slow ternary 2. Fast scherzo •Idea #1 (tonic key) •Transition (modulates) •Idea #2 (dominant key) 3. Minuet and trio 3. Slow, lyrical movement Development 4. Fast sonata or rondo 4. Fast sonata or rondo •Exploratory •Harmonically unstable Recapitulation •Idea #1 (tonic key) •Transition (no modulation) •Idea #2 (tonic key) DIAGRAMMING: AN OVERVIEW Scholars diagram sections of music with capital letters. FORM DIAGRAM Repetition form AAAA Theme and variations form A A’ A’’ A’’’ Ternary form ABA Rondo form ABACA or ABACABA 32-bar form AABA MUSIC CRAM KIT | 14 BASIC ELEMENTS OF MUSIC THEORY Flash-Forward: The 20th Century MORE 20TH CENTURY DEVELOPMENTS BEYOND COMMON PRACTICE NANO-REVIEW Common-practice tonality focused on the resolution of dissonance to drive harmony. TOUGH STUFF th Beginning in the 19 century, composers equated complexity with expressivity. They deviated from common practice as they sought greater complexity. OTHER CHALLENGES TO COMMON PRACTICE Lu igi R us solo worked to create and classify ‘‘noises’’ C laude D ebu ss y and Igor S travins ky used n onf un ction al h armon ies that never resolved Sometimes these composers used two keys po l y t o n a l i t y ) simultaneously (p They used unusual scales like pentatonic, octatonic, and whole-tone ONE LAST THING… Chromatic harmonies Rich seventh chords Frequent modulation NOBODY’S PERFECT Delay of resolution Musical Complexity CHALLENGING COMMON PRACTICE Arno ld Schoenb erg challenged common-practice tonality in the 20th century. 1910 •Schoenberg advocated "eem an ci pation of t he d iss o nance" •He urged contemporaries to abandon common-practice progressions •The resulting aton al m us ic lacks a central tonic Music notation and recording technology both have certain limitations. Music necessitates performance. Thus, C hris to pher S m all advocates Mus ick ing.’’ study of human musicianship, or ‘‘M FORMS AND FIRSTS QUESTIONS 1. ______ relies on imitation and counterpoint. 2. The first movements of many multi-movement works often exhibit ______ form. 3. What are the three parts of a sonata? 4. The diagram ABA corresponds to ______ form. 5. ______ advocated “emancipation of the dissonance” in the 1920s. 6. The ______ centers on a tone row instead of a traditional Western scale. 7. ______ refers to the use of two different keys at once. 8. Critic Christopher Small calls the human aspects of music “______.” 1925 •Schoenberg proposed the 12 -tone m eth od •Instead of a scale, he uses a "tone row" to determine pitch relationships Schoenberg’s protégés, Alban Berg and Ant on We be rn, used this method in the 1930s. However, the 12-tone techniques only truly caught on after World War II. ANSWERS 1. Fugue 2. Sonata 3. Exposition; development; recapitulation 4. Ternary 5. Arnold Schoenberg 6. 12-tone method 7. Polytonality 8. Musicking MUSIC CRAM KIT | 15 CLASSICAL MUSIC AND MODERNISM Musical Eras and the Development of a Canon THAT’S, LIKE, SO LAST ERA READY THE CANON! Scholars divide music history into six broad s ty le perio ds, or eras. Overall, the music of each era shares similar characteristics. Large-scale changes in compositional style mark the start of a new era. European-born conductors like Leo na rd Stoko wsk i fueled the establishment of a musical canon. THE MUSICAL ERAS Note: Dates are approximate. A musical can on refers to a body of works with enduring popularity across the eras. In the early 20th century, a canon of Baroque, Classical, and Romantic works developed in reaction to the Modern era’s revolutionary experimentation. THE CANON Middle Ages (800-1400) •Also called the Medieval period •First Western attempts to write down music (notation) EFFECTS OF THE CANON Renaissance (1400-1600) Before Canonization •Composers challenged the Church's musical conventions •Humanism became the dominant ideology •Audiences favored fresh compositions Baroque (1600-1750) •Baroque means "misshapen" or "distorted" •Composers argued between the new stile moderno and the old stile antico After Canonization •Composers competed with past generations, not just with peers Classical (1750-1830) •Ambiguous beginning and end •Baroque composer Johann Sebastian Bach died in 1750 •Composers wrote Classical music as late as 1830 Romantic (1800-1900) POST-ROMANTICISM In response to audience preferences, Pos t-Rom a nt ic composers combined 19th-century techniques with Modern-era innovations. •Music featured vivid harmonies and emotional expressiveness •Romantic styles continued into the Modern era Modern (1900-present) •Eventually, future historians will rename this era •Emphasizes experimentation and originality R o m a n t i c I n f l u e n ce M o d e r n I n f l u e n ce Common-practice harmony Expressive melodies Variety of timbres (tone colors) Extended chords THEY LIKE US! THEY REALLY LIKE US! Renewed musical interest benefitted 20 th-century musicians. New opera companies appeared Concert societies created series of canonical and canon-like works Communities increasingly sponsored professional orchestras Demand for performers increased demand for music education programs in colleges and conservatories MUSIC CRAM KIT | 16 CLASSICAL MUSIC AND MODERNISM Audio Recording and Film Technology CAN YOU HEAR ME NOW? Advances in radio technology dramatically transformed 20th-century culture. FOR THE RECORD… Benefits of Recording Guglielmo Marconi •Achieved wireless radio •First broadcast of speech: December 23, 1900 •Ethnomusicologists recorded folk and ethnic music from many countries •Composers used these folk songs as inspiration Lee De Forest •First public radio broadcast featuring the Metropolitan Opera Recording limitations THE ‘‘UNSINKABLE’’ TITANIC The Titanic tragedy in 1912 revealed the non-musical importance of radio. The nearby S.S. Californian did not receive the Titanic’s distress signal due to an understaffed radio room. COMING SOON TO A THEATRE NEAR YOU The earliest films consisted of silent moving images projected on a screen. Early 20th-century inventors tried to synchronize film and sound technology. THE RADIO ACT OF 1912 American radio stations require federal licenses Ship radio room must be manned at all times •Only short snippets fit on each disk •The recordings thus are not very authentic President can close radio stations during wartime Radio Act of 1912 Sound-on-Disk Method • Coordinated phonograph or gramophone with projector Sound-on-Film Method • Embedded sound directly onto film strip After WWI, Lee De Forest finally achieved audio synchronization. The J az z Singe r, the first full-length ‘‘talkie,’’ premiered in 1927. BEFORE THE IPOD New audio recording devices enabled customers to buy and listen to music recordings. Phonograph Graphophone Gramophone •Inventor: Thomas Edison •First made in 1877 •Used tinfoil cylinders to record sound •Marketed by Columbia in late 19th century •Used wax cylinders instead of tinfoil •Played flat-disc recordings instead of cylinders. •WWI soldiers took portable “trench models” to the front lines LEAVE NO GAPS IN MEMORY FILL IN THE BLANK 1. “Baroque” means “______” or “_______.” 2. A body of musical works with enduring popularity is called a _____. 3. Thomas Edison created the _______ in 1877. ANSWERS 1. Misshapen; distorted 2. Canon 3. Phonograph MUSIC CRAM KIT | 17 CLASSICAL MUSIC AND MODERNISM Impressionism and ‘‘Voiles’’ A BIT HAZY ON THE DETAILS? TRACK 1: PRÉLUDES, NO. 2 ‘‘VOILES’’ THE BIRTH OF IMPRESSIONISM Impressionism was one of the first modernist art movements It began as a style of painting in late 19th-century France Claude Mo net sparked the trend with his piece I m p r e s s i o n : s o l e i l l e v a n t (I m p r e s s i o n : S u n r i se ) French composers imitated the new artistic approach in their music THE BASIC BREAKDOWN M a j o r Wo r k Préludes, Book 1 (of 2) Fe at u r e d E x ce r p t ‘‘Voiles’’ (No. 2 of 12) C o m po s e r Ge n re In s t ru me nt at i o n Ye ar Impressionism in Painting Musical Impressionism Emphasis on light and color Emphasis on timbre (tone color) Less focus on line and form Less focus on rhythm Indefinite, unclear images Unclear musical forms (structures) Claude Debussy Character piece / miniature Solo piano 1909 PRELUDE TO… NOTHING! The term "prelude" originally referred to a piece that introduced another piece Romantic composer Frédéric Ch opin turned the prelude into a stand-alone character piece (aka miniature) A ch aract er piece uses musical techniques to depict a visual image, often indicated by the piece's title Debussy wrote the Préludes as a tribute to Chopin DOUBLE ENTENDRE? SYMBOLISM: GIVE IT A BREAK An earlier French movement called Sy mb olism also influenced Impressionism. Symbolist poets emphasized imagery over narrative form. Frequent interruptions in the syntax of their works produced a dreamlike quality. Impressionist composers included similar breaks in their music. IMPRESSIONIST COMPOSERS C l a u d e D e b u ss y M au ri ce R av e l Li l i B ou l an g e r Fr e de ri ck D e l i u s C h ar l e s Gr i ff es FORM Though ‘‘Voiles’’ is an Impressionist work, scholars agree that the piece conforms to AB A t ernary fo rm. Shifts in the use of scales mark the boundaries of each section. Wrote Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun (1894) French contemporary of Debussy A •Whole-tone scale •Three motifs: downward cascade, slow ascending, zigzag B •Pentatonic scale •An upward gl is s a ndo (sweeping motion) features the pentatonic notes A •Whole-tone scale •Glissandos continue, but with whole-tone pitches •Conclusive cascades create a coda to end the piece First woman to win Prix de Rome Ot t o ri no R e s p igh i The title ‘‘Voiles’’ can be interpreted several ways. It could be the plural of ‘‘le voile’’ (the veil) or of ‘‘la voile’’ (the sail). This imprecision emphasizes Impressionism’s ambiguous nature. Italian composer of Fountains of Rome (1916) English Impressionist composer U.S. Impressionist composer of ‘‘The White Peacock’’ from Roman Sketches MUSIC CRAM KIT | 18 CLASSICAL MUSIC AND MODERNISM Expressionism and Pierrot lunaire EXPRESS YOURSELF TRACK 2: PIERROT LUNAIRE, ‘‘NACHT’’ Express ion ism depicted strong emotions in an attempt to convey the struggle of human reality. THE BASIC BREAKDOWN M a j o r Wo r k EXPRESSIONISM IN ART Sense of unease Nonnaturalistic colors Warped, exaggerated shapes Fe at u r e d E x ce r p t C o m po s e r Ge n re In s t ru me nt at i o n ELEMENTS OF MUSICAL EXPRESSIONISM To create an unsettling effect Avoided recognizable cadences Used unbalanced phrases To evoke emotion Used erratic and forceful rhythms Emphasized dissonance Ye ar Pierrot lunaire, Op. 21 No. 8 ‘‘Nacht’’ Arnold Schoenberg Song cycle Singer, cello, piano, bass clarinet 1912 ALL ABOUT PIERROT Based on a stock character from commedia dell’arte Wore white make-up and a white costume Characterized as a foolish troublemaker Also called Petrushka and Pagliacci IT’S A MAD, MAD WORLD FATHER OF THE FEELS Arnold Schoenberg pioneered musical Expressionism. His composition Erw artung exemplified the ideas of the movement. Schoenberg also painted Expressionist works. WE’LL ALWAYS HAVE PARIS VIENNA Vienna served as the unofficial headquarters for musical Se con d V ien nese S chool ’’ dabbled Expressionists. The ‘‘S in Expressionism. Like many Expressionist pieces, Pierrot lunaire centers on a theme of madness. Superstition often blames erratic behavior on the moon. The title of the piece translates to ‘‘Moonstruck Pierrot.’’ THE BIRTH OF A PIECE Albe rt Girau d published a set of 50 Symbolist poems about Pierrot in 1884 Alban Berg Arnold Schoenberg Anton Webern Second Viennese School In 1912, cabaret singer Albert in e Zeh m e commissioned Schoenberg to write a song cycle Schoenberg chose 21 of Giraud’s poems for the work VICIOUS OR VIRTUOUS? A song c ycle is a set of vocal pieces connected by musical motifs and text. Pierrot lunaire tells the story of Pierrot’s drunken exploits. MUSIC CRAM KIT | 19 CLASSICAL MUSIC AND MODERNISM Pierrot lunaire (continued) and Primitivism TRACK 2: ‘‘NACHT’’ (CONTINUED) RECIPE FOR MUSICAL EXPRESSIONISM In addition to a reciter (singer), Schoenberg’s score calls for five performers who play eight different instruments. Cello Clarinet & bass clarinet Piano Violin & viola Flute & piccolo Reciter Each song features a different combination of instruments. The instruments used in ‘‘Nacht’’ are underlined above. SPRECHEN SIE DEUTSCHE? BLAST FROM THE PAST P rim itiv ism focuses on the contrast between humans and nature, usually centering on ancestral images. Primitivist art features bold colors and simple lines The ‘‘barbaric’’ art often seems to hold symbolic power Many Primitivists drew inspiration from traditional art of Africa and the Pacific Islands Primitivist artists included Paul Gauguin, Henri Rousseau, and Henri Matisse BACK TO THE BASICS Musical Primitivism emphasized primal sounds and elemental power. Composers rejected elements of cultured concert music. The reciter uses a vocal technique called Sprechs timm e (German for ‘‘spoken song’’). The performer half-sings and half-speaks the notes, creating a spooky singsong effect. Musical Primitivism PROGRAMMATIC DEVICES Percussive rhythms Ostinato motifs Simplified harmonies Text Imagery •"Nacht" depicts an ominous image of black moths eclipsing the sun, creating artificial night •In true Expressionist fashion, the moths swoop down toward human hearts Passacaglia Form •Baroque variation form that features a repeating b ass o o st i n at o) bass line (b •The ostinato in "Nacht" consists of three notes •New melodies appear over this constant motif MATCHMAKER, MATCHMAKER MATCHING Match the artist, composer, or piece to the correct movement. Some answers may be used more than once. 1. Alban Berg A. Impressionism 2. “Voiles” B. Symbolism 3. Lili Boulanger C. Expressionism Instrumental Effects 4. Albert Giraud D. Primitivism •FFerm at a: all performers hold pitches longer than written value, as though frozen in fear •Cellist plays o n the b ridge to create a glassy, cold sound •Rapid oscillations produce a trembling effect 5. Claude Debussy 6. Paul Gauguin 7. Arnold Schoenberg 8. Erwartung 9. Henri Matisse Reciter's Role 10. Claude Monet •Use of Sprechstimme for an off-putting effect Wo rd-paint in g: musical setting matches literal •W meaning of the text ANSWERS 1-C; 2-A; 3-A; 4-B; 5-A; 6-D; 7-C; 8-C; 9-D; 10-A. MUSIC CRAM KIT | 20 CLASSICAL MUSIC AND MODERNISM The Rite of Spring TRACK 3: RITE OF SPRING TRACK 3: RITE OF SPRING (CONTINUED) THE BASIC BREAKDOWN EVERYONE’S A CRITIC M a j o r Wo r k Fe at u r e d E x ce r p t C o m po s e r Ge n re In s t ru me nt at i o n Ye ar The Rite of Spring ‘‘Introduction’’ and ‘‘Omens of Spring’’ The Rite of Spring’s premiere on May 29, 1913 triggered mass uproar from the audience. Several factors played a role in this response: The audience disliked the venue because it looked Igor Stravinsky Ballet score too German and lacked air conditioning Parisians did not like Nijinsky’s choreography in a previous ballet, Debussy’s Jeux Full orchestra 1913 BUT IF AT FIRST YOU DON’T SUCCEED… 1914 BACK BY POPULAR DEMAND Before The Rite of Spring, Russian-born composer Igor Stra vins ky had already enjoyed success in Paris. Se rgei Diag hilev commissioned him to write a custom score for the 1910 B allet s R usse s The resulting work, The Firebi rd, launched the composer to fame Stravinsky also wrote P et rushka (1911), based on the same commedia dell’arte character featured in Pierrot lunaire •Conductor P ierre Mo nt eu x presented The Rite of Spring as a concert piece •It met with great acclaim in Paris 1987 •American dance historian M illicent Hods on painstakingly recreated Nijinsky's choreography •The Joffrey Ballet produced the reconstructed work •The audience reacted positively to the Primitivist dances THIRD TIME’S THE CHARM Stravinsky’s third ballet, The Rite of Spring, explored Primitivism in several ways. Scenario •Storyline focuses on a pagan ritual in ancient Russia Sacrif icial Dan ce: the Chosen One •S dances herself to death to appease the gods Costume •Inspired by medieval Russian peasants •Resembled tribal wear Dance V aclav Nijins ky •Choreographed byV •Emphasis on ritualistic gestures •Sudden hops and awkward leaps Music •Quoted folk melodies •Avoided common-practice harmony using a po ly cho rd •Strong rhythms mimicked ancient drums •Three different ostinato rhythms SPRING FORWARD-----DON’T FALL BACK QUESTIONS 1. Where was Igor Stravinsky born? 2. Who commissioned Stravinsky to write The Firebird? 3. Which Expressionist work shares a character with Stravinsky’s ballet Petrushka? 4. Who choreographed The Rite of Spring? 5. When did The Rite of Spring debut in Paris? ANSWERS 1. Russia 2. Sergei Diaghilev 3. Pierrot lunaire 4. Vaclav Nijinsky 5. May 29, 1913 MUSIC CRAM KIT | 21 CLASSICAL MUSIC AND MODERNISM Nationalism MY COUNTRY, ‘TIS OF THEE Unlike other 20th-century musical styles, Na tio nali sm did not have a parallel art movement. This style dated back to the Romantic era. LOVE OF COUNTRY SPAIN Several French composers wrote music glorifying Spain. Spanish nationalist composers followed their example. Functions of Nationalism Express patriotism Defy invaders French Composers •Claude Debussy: Iberia •Maurice Ravel: Rapsodie espagnole, Bolero Preserve culture AROUND THE WORLD Spanish Composers FRANCE Two nationalist musical organizations arose to promote French music and reject Germanic conventions. Société Nationale de Musique •Founded: 1871 •Motto: "Ars gallica" (French art) •Goal: restore national pride after losing AlsaceLorraine •Isaac Albeniz: Iberia •Enrique Granados: Goyescas (2 - a piano suite and an opera) Les Six •Founded: 1917 •Goal: elevate French artistry during and after WWI ENGLAND Some organizations rediscovered the ‘‘lost music’’ of the past English composers also depicted their nation’s heritage and landscape in music Nationalist composers included Ralph Vaughn W illiam s and Gust av H ols t FINLANDIA Jea n Sib elius celebrated Finnish culture in his piece Finlandia. The Finns adopted the piece as an unofficial national anthem while under Russian control. Sibelius was considered a national hero. THE UNITED STATES Given canonical bias toward European works, American ‘‘classical’’ composers had few opportunities. C harles I v e s only gained fame for his nationalist works later in life. Ives quoted American hymns and patriotic songs He also praised America’s heritage and landscape Ives named the movements of his Piano Sonata No. 2 after American Transcendentalist writers Today, historians consider him one of the first great American composers USING FOLK SONG Folk melodies inspired many nationalist composers. Some, like Zo ltán K odály and Béla B artók, worked as ethnomusicologists and collected folk songs, which they then used in their own compositions. 5 TYPES OF FOLK MUSIC ADAPTATION Scholar Benjam in S uch of f identified five ways Bartók used folk music in his compositions. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Folk tune highlighted (“jewel”) with original inventions secondary (“mounting”) Folk tune and invented material equally important Folk tune occurs as “motto” and invented material is more important Composition based on imitation of folk tunes “Spirit of folk music” pervades the piece, but no specific folk tune is quoted or imitated MUSIC CRAM KIT | 22 CLASSICAL MUSIC AND MODERNISM Romanian Christmas Carols and Atonality TRACK 4: ROMANIAN CHRISTMAS CAROLS SOMETHING’S MISSING HERE ATONALITY THE BASIC BREAKDOWN M a j o r Wo r k Fe at u r e d E x ce r p t C o m po s e r Ge n re In s t ru me nt at i o n Ye ar Romanian Christmas Carols ‘‘First Series’’ (10 tunes) Béla Bartók Solo piano 1915 KID-FRIENDLY AND FOLK-APPROVED Bartók wrote the Romanian Christmas Carols as an educational work for teaching children. The composer emphasized the original folk tunes and created original harmonization to spotlight each carol. FOLK INFLUENCE C ade n ce R hy th m D r o ne COMPARABLE ARTISTIC MOVEMENTS Folksong DON’T JUDGE A BOOK BY ITS COVER NAME Despite its title, Romanian Christmas Carols is a nationalistic Hungarian work In the early 20th century, Hungary included several ethnic subcultures Romanians comprised the third largest ethnic group Bartók collected these tunes from Tran sy lvan ia M o d al Atona l music does not center on a tonic note (‘‘resting tone’’). Unlike tonal music, atonal music does not come to ‘‘rest’’ on a certain pitch. A mo da l piece uses scales that were abandoned with the adoption of common-practice harmony This work uses Do ri a n, Phry gi a n, and M i xo ly di a n modes Many of the co l in de (carols) end on a high pitch The resulting cadence sounds incomplete This technique occurs infrequently in Western music The rhythmic flexibility of the tunes indicates Romanian influence Changes in meter accommodate the irregularity The carols use a drone accompaniment This sound imitates the open pipes of a folk bagpipe Cubism • Artistic style that rejected the fixed viewpoint used in earlier art • Aimed to show multiple perspectives of an object at once Early 20th Century Literature • Experimental literature that rejected linear narratives • Included works by Ja m es Joyce and T. S. Eliot SUPPORTERS AND CHARACTERISTICS Arno ld Schoenb erg heavily guided the movement toward atonality. His avant-garde ideas included: E m a n ci p a t i o n o f t h e D i s s o n a n c e " “E (1 911) •Dissonance was just very chromatic consonance •Chords did not need to serve a function •Complicated chords did not need to resolve to simpler ones 12 -t on e S e rialis m (19 20 s) •Organizational structure for harmony •See Section I for more details EVERYONE’S SPECIAL Schoenberg loathed the term ‘‘atonal’’ because it identified the style by what it did not have (a tonic). pant onal,’’ which suggested that all He preferred ‘‘p the notes mattered. MUSIC CRAM KIT | 23 CLASSICAL MUSIC AND MODERNISM Six Bagatelles for String Quartet TRACK 5: SIX BAGATELLES FOR STRING QUARTET SIX BAGATELLES (CONTINUED) THE BASIC BREAKDOWN Bagatelle No. 5 divides into two halves. The first half presents the aggregate. The second half forms a can on. M a j o r Wo r k Fe at u r e d E x ce r p t C o m po s e r Ge n re Six Bagatelles for String Quartet, Op. 9 No. 5 ‘‘Äußerst langsam’’ Anton Webern Bagatelle; miniature; Klangfarbenmelodie In s t ru me nt at i o n Ye ar String quartet (2 violins, 1 viola, 1 cello) 1913 SHORT AND SWEET A bagatell e is a Romantic-era genre The term means ‘‘trifle’’ or something of little value Webern suggests that the music has little meaning The short piece is also a mini ature As a Kl ang farbenmelodie, the bagatelle emphasizes timbre more than the rise and fall of a melody WHAT’S NEW? Bagatelle No. 5 involves several Modernist ideas. Pantonality Unusual timbres • The a ggrega te contains all 12 pitches in the octave • Webern introduces the entire aggregate in the first seven measures • The performers play on the bridge or pizzicato (pluck the string) • They also use mutes, which inhibit string vibration TRYING TO MAKE A POINT HERE Webern deliberately emphasizes the pitches. The tempo, ‘‘Äußers t l angs am,’’ means ‘‘extremely slow.’’ A light texture called point il lis m results: each note becomes an individual ‘‘point’’ of sound. REMEMBER ME? QUESTIONS 1. What was the Société Nationale de Musique’s motto? 2. Which piece by Charles Ives contains movements named after Transcendentalist authors? 3. Where did Bartók collect the carols for Track 4? 4. Which term did Schoenberg prefer over “atonal”? 5. What is the set of all 12 pitches in an octave called? ANSWERS 1. “Ars gallica” (“French art”) 2. Piano Sonata No. 2 3. Transylvania 4. Pantonal 5. Aggregate MUSIC CRAM KIT | 24 EARLY 20TH-CENTURY ‘‘POPULAR’’ MUSIC Folk Music and Stage Traditions RELICS OF A SIMPLER TIME WHEN THE FAT LADY SINGS Fo lk m usic, also called vernacu la r m us ic, is one of the oldest styles of music. It still appealed to audiences during the 20th century. OPERA Oper a began in Italy during the Baroque period (17th century). In 16 37, Venetian opera houses became open to the public. Other countries soon followed suit. FUNCTION OVER FORM Scholars classify folk songs as f unct ional, since most serve purposes beyond mere entertainment. Songs for ritual occasions Children's and work songs Songs that preserve tradition and knowledge C o u n t ry Op e r a- l i ke En t e rtai n m ent E n g l an d Ballad operas, comic operas Ge r m any Si ngs piel (‘‘sung play’’) Fr a n ce Opér a-ballets (emphasized dance) LAUNCHING SPIN-OFFS In time, new variations and spin-offs of opera appeared. YE OLDEN DAYS Folksong began as an oral tradition. It was difficult to document without recording technology. Italy Early scholars published compilations of folk music starting in the 18th century They transcribed each piece by ear The books focused on vocal melodies and neglected accompaniments and instrumental music France Opera seria (serious) Opéra-comique (large theatres only) Opera buffa (comic) Opéra-bouffe (smaller theatres) TECHNOLOGY: A MIXED BLESSING COPYCAT, COPYCAT Audio recordings helped preserve existing folk music Austria and England created o pere tt a s, operatic comedies based on the French opera-bouffe. Industrialization and urbanization threatened folk traditions Some operettas capitalized on nationalism William G ilbe rt and Arthur Su llivan were a IN THE 20TH CENTURY Folk music still impacted 20th-century audiences. Folk traditions influenced blues and jazz Record manufacturers like the Gramo phone C om pany Lt d. advertised folksongs Promotional essays and articles spotlighted different genres of folk music Some recordings of folk song proved extremely profitable successful British writing team The United States developed opera much later than many other countries (1794) American theatres mostly imported operas and operettas from abroad THE RIGHT TO COPYRIGHT Initially, many producers ‘‘pirated’’ foreign productions without paying royalties to the original composers. In 1887, the Berne C onve ntion passed the first international copyright law to protect composers’ rights. MUSIC CRAM KIT | 25 EARLY 20TH-CENTURY ‘‘POPULAR’’ MUSIC Minstrel Shows and Music Halls STEREOTYPES ON STAGE ‘‘THE HALLS ARE ALIVE…’’ The m instre l s how gained popularity in the United States during the 19th century. In 19th-century England, mus ic hal ls developed as an outgrowth of taverns and pubs. Music halls featured many genres of musical DEVELOPMENT In 1 822, English actor Ch a rl es M a tth ews exaggerated AfricanAmerican mannerisms on stage He wore b la ck -f a ce m ak e-u p during these acts entertainment Audience members typically ate and drank during shows Music halls regularly revised their programs to incorporate current events (a la SNL) The Ge rm an R eed Fa m ily worked to improve the reputation of music halls and attract the middle class White American actors called Eth io pia n del in ea to rs" adopted "E his technique Examples Later in the century, black minstrel troupes began touring "My Old Dutch" JIM CROW CHARACTERISTICS Minstrel shows often featured jokes, special skills, and parodies of other genres The music used catchy rhythms and melodies These shows featured stock characters based on Southern stereotypes Many minstrel shows included a cakewalk where the characters imitated plantation owners wal k-aroun d’’ featured the full cast A closing ‘‘w EXAMPLES Ste ph en F oster wrote many of the best-known minstrel tunes. Americans still sing several of these songs today. "Old Folks at Home" ("Swanee River") "Ta-ra-ra Boom-de-ay" RAPID REVIEW Ethiopian delineator Thomas Dart m outh R ice created the character ‘‘JJim C row,’’ an arthritic old man who danced awkwardly. In the 20th century, the term was linked to racist laws in the South. "My Old Kentucky Home" "I'm Henery the Eighth, I Am" "Dixie" FILL IN THE BLANK 1. Vernacular music is classified as _____ because it serves a purpose beyond entertainment. 2. The record manufacturer _____________ advertised folksongs in the 20th century. 3. Singspiel translates to “_________.” 4. One successful British operetta-writing team was that of ___________ and ___________. 5. ____________ created the character “Jim Crow.” 6. During the ________ of a minstrel show, characters imitated white plantation owners. 7. The _______________ attempted to make music halls seem more reputable. ANSWERS 1. Functional 2. Gramophone Company Ltd. 3. Sung play 4. William Gilbert; Arthur Sullivan 5. Thomas Dartmouth Rice 6. Cakewalk 7. German Reed Family MUSIC CRAM KIT | 26 EARLY 20TH-CENTURY ‘‘POPULAR’’ MUSIC Vaudeville and Bands A MUSICAL POTPOURRI WE MUST BAND TOGETHER A vau devil le show (also called a v arie ty show) consisted of a series of diverse t urns (acts). In the 19th century, a b and consisted of a standard set of instruments. ELEMENTS OF VAUDEVILLE Circuit Bill Stock Music •Theatre owners created circuit s similar to modern theater chains •A circuit hired a performer, who moved from theater to theater every week or so •The bi ll listed the turns •The most famous performer appeared first, hence the term "tt op bi lling" •Theater musicians accompanied performers using s tock m us ic that matched generic moods or situations •The visiting performer then gave the musician(s) a cue s h eet indicating the type of music desired B an d In s t ru me nt at i o n B r as s B an d Brass, percussion W i n d B an d Brass, percussion, woodwind Bands served a wide variety of functions. Military Community Synchronized marching Music education Supported routines Informal social gatherings BAND OF BROTHERS (AND SISTERS, TOO) Despite some questionable elements, vaudeville enjoyed great popularity. Bands provided early training for many African-American instrumentalists. Jame s Reese Eu rope created an African-American Harrigan & Hart Stereotyping •Vaudeville team Ha r rig a n • D i a l e c t c o me d ia n s a nd Ha r t broke a color parodied and stereotyped ethnic groups barrier in American theatre •In 1883, the production team •Vaudeville also stressed allowed the first Africanlimited, predictable gender American actors to perform roles military band for the 3 69 th U. S . In f ant ry Re giment during WWI W.C. Handy played in several brass bands Lo uis Armstron g also got his start in a brass band Women also participated in bands. Originally, only female violinists, harpists, and vocalists were included. Eventually, women formed their own bands. MISS SOUSA JR. POP CULTURE LEGACY A popular vaudeville skit originated the ‘‘Slowly I turned… step by step… inch by inch’’ phrasing Comedy team Dran e and Ale xander popularized the dynamic duo M ut t an d J eff Many famous 20th-century entertainers began their careers in vaudeville He len M a y Butler created the successful Ladies B ras s B and. She led several all-female ensembles and conducted hundreds of concerts. Butler’s M is s Sous a J r.,’’ in success led to the nickname ‘‘M reference to famous American bandleader John P h i l i p S o u s a. MUSIC CRAM KIT | 27 EARLY 20TH-CENTURY ‘‘POPULAR’’ MUSIC Marches and Gospel Music JANUARY, FEBRUARY… GOSPEL The m arch genre is well-suited to bands. It uses duple meter, which is suitable for marching. Congregational hymns and songs have a long history in the United States. THE REAL MR. SOUSA Jo hn Ph ilip Sous a was the most famous American bandleader. He composed over 100 marches for the T he Marine Band, earning him the nickname ‘‘T M arch Ki ng.’’ Under Sousa’s direction, the Marine Band became the premier American military band. MARCHING IN PROPER FORM 1640 1700s •The New England colonies printed The Bay Psalm Bo ok, the first publication in the region •It contained rhyming versions of Biblical psalms •New singing schools increased American musical literacy •These schools used new religious tunes as exercises th 19 -century marches usually adhered to m ul ti -themat ic f orm. This form involves several melodies, or s trains, each of which usually repeats at least one time. "Trio" THE GOSPEL TRUTH •3rd strain, named for 17th- and 18th-century dances •Quiet, melodic •Shifts harmony to subdominant key •Usually features woodwind instruments In the 19th century, religious hymns adopted features of popular music. The resulting hybrid pieces became known as gos pel h ym ns. Gospel music reached wide audiences. Religious evangelists used catchy gospel tunes to "Break" d o g f i g h t" •4th strain, also called the "d •Contrasting character: typically bombastic •If no break, then trio repeats at louder dynamic with more instruments TOP HITS The United States adopted Sousa’s piece ‘‘TThe S tars an d S tripes Forev er’’ as its national march Sousa’s 1889 march ‘‘tthe Wash ington Post’’ was often played for two-step dancing Colo nel Bo gey,’’ composed WWI soldiers enjoyed ‘‘C by Lt. Fre deric J. R icke tts under the name Kenneth J . A l fo rd boost revival efforts American soldiers often sang gospel songs during WWI Examples included ‘‘His Eye is on the Sparrow’’ and ‘‘The Old Rugged Cross’’ TERMS TO KNOW FILL IN THE BLANK 1. Vaudeville accompanists usually used ______ that matched generic situations. 2. James Reese Europe’s military band accompanied the ______________ Regiment. 3. Bandleader ______________ earned the nickname “The March King.” 4. Religious songs with features of popular music were called ____________. BAND IMPACT Classical composers like Gus tav Ho ls t wrote pieces for concert bands. Ragtime adopted the multi-thematic form found in marches. ANSWERS 1. Stock music 2. 369th U.S. Infantry Regiment 3. John Philip Sousa 4. Gospel hymns MUSIC CRAM KIT | 28 EARLY 20TH-CENTURY ‘‘POPULAR’’ MUSIC National Anthems and Ragtime PRIDE AND PATRIOTISM DON’T RAG ON ME, BRO At the start of the 19th century, only a few countries used national anthems. R agtim e derived its name from its use of ‘‘ragged’’ syncopated rhythms. The style mostly applied to piano pieces called rags. C o u n t ry A n th em E n g l an d ‘‘God Save the King (Queen)’’ Fr a n ce ‘‘La Marseillaise’’ S p ai n Royal March (instrumental) During the Romantic era, more countries adopted national anthems. INFLUENCES Ragtime took on characteristics from other musical styles. Marches and band music European classical piano Latin American music Austria used a piece by Joseph Haydn as its Ka i s e rhy mn e Germany initially used the tune ‘‘God Save the King’’ In 1922, Germany adopted the Austrian Kaiserhymne Minstrel shows Ragtime African music AMERICA THE INDECISIVE The United States took over a century to pick an anthem. "America" •More singable than "The Star-Spangled Banner" •Used the same tune as "God Save the King" OOM-PAH LOOM-PAH? The bass line of a rag typically maintains a steady eighth- or quarter-note beat. Musicians call this an o om-pah’’ rhythm. It mimics the tubas of a ‘‘o standard march. The rag’s melody then plays syncopated rhythms over the bass line. A New National Anthem •Supported by the National Song Society •Succeeded by "My Own United States" "The Star-Spangled Banner" •Written by Francis Scott Key in 1814 •Declared the official military air in 1916 •Formally adopted by Congress as anthem in 1931 HAIL TO THE KING To m Turpin was the first black composer to publish a rag, Ha rlem R ag.’’ However, it was later composer Sco tt ‘‘H Jo plin who earned the nickname the ‘‘K Ki ng o f Ra gtime.’’ Joplin was one of the first composers to negotiate royalties for his music. Joplin received a flat fee for his Orien t al R ag" (1899) "O IT’S ALL POLITICS Groups with political or social agendas used music to support their campaigns. Joplin negotiated for a royalty of a M apl e Le af penny for each copy of "M R ag " The In dustrial Wo rkers of t he Wo rld published The Little Red Songboo k in 1909 Union members called Wobblie s adapted gospel songs Dam e E the l Smy th composed ‘‘T T he M a r ch o f t h e W omen’’ for British suffragettes The first year, Joplin earned $4.00; however, the work sold half a million copies by 1909 Joplin’s success inspired Jam es S cot t and Jose ph La m b, the first successful white ragtime composer. MUSIC CRAM KIT | 29 EARLY 20TH-CENTURY ‘‘POPULAR’’ MUSIC Ragtime and ‘‘Maple Leaf Rag’’ RAGS TO RICHES TRACK 6: ‘‘MAPLE LEAF RAG’’ Ragtime inspired new music and dance styles. THE BASIC BREAKDOWN CIRCLE ‘ROUND M a j o r Wo r k Couple •Before the 20th century, couple dances like the triple-meter w altz dominated ballrooms C o m po s e r Ge n re In s t ru me nt at i o n •In the Modern era, individual dances emerged •Many of these dances used ragtime Individual syncopation Couple •In the 1920s, the t ang o and the f ox trot brought back couple dancing SWINGING BY AND TAKING IT IN STRIDE Sw ing music lengthens the first note of a pair and shortens the second. Foxtrots often use swing rhythms. Jam e s P. Johnso n gained fame as the ‘‘FFat h er o f Stride P iano.’’ His most famous work is ‘‘T The Ch arlest on.’’ Steady rhythm Left Hand Stride Piano Large intervals ("strides") Chords Right Hand Rag Solo piano (Scott Joplin) 1899 SPEED LIMIT The score indicates Tempo di Marci a (‘‘march tempo’’) This marking emphasizes the rag’s connection to band marches Many pianists played rags faster than feasible for marching, a tendency Joplin despised AND WE’RE ROLLING! Before acoustic recordings emerged, pianists used piano ro lls to record songs. The listening track features Joplin’s 1916 piano roll recording of his rag. FOR The multi-thematic form of the piece offers tribute to marches. ‘‘Maple Leaf Rag’’ includes four strains in a AABBACCDD pattern. A&B Igor Stravinsky C ("Trio") • "Golliwog's Cakewalk" included ragtime rhythms • This piece was part of the piano suite Children's Corner Scott Joplin Swing rhythms RAGTIME AND THE OLD WORLD Ragtime inspired several European classical composers. Claude Debussy Ye ar ‘‘Maple Leaf Rag’’ • Ragtime inspired one of the three dances in A Soldier's Tale • Stravinsky also wrote "Ragtime for 11 Instruments" D •Each A strain begins with a series of upward sweeps •These elegant sweeps reflect the influence of classical piano •Both strains are similar, but B lies in a higher register •Shifts to subddominant key of Db m ajor •Heavier than the previous strains (more notes at once) •Returns to tonic key of Ab major •1st measure of strain involves no syncopation •Ragtime rhythms return in the 2nd measure MUSIC CRAM KIT | 30 EARLY 20TH-CENTURY ‘‘POPULAR’’ MUSIC All About the Blues FEELING BLUE CLASSIC VS. COUNTRY Traits of African music play a key role in the b lues. Compared to the country blues, cla ss ic blues had more urban characteristics. Other names for this genre include: C h ar act e r i s ti c No t es Call-and-response Solo leader presents a statement Chorus responds with an echo or an answer Melismatic One syllable of text corresponds to multiple pitches in the melody BIRTH OF THE BLUES The blues began in the M iss iss ippi De lta during the 19th century. The genre acts as a form of catharsis to purge the performer of negative emotions. 12-BAR BLUES The 12 -b ar b lues form follows a basic progression using three chords in a set manner. Tonic (I) Dominant (V) Urban blues Country Blues •Informal audience (party atmosphere) •Solo male singer •Accompaniment: guitar or harmonica •Subjects: love gone wrong, politics •More improvisation Bessie Smith E m p re s s o f t h e B l u e s" •Nickname: "E •Inspired Ella Fitzgerald, Billie Holiday, and Janis Joplin William Christopher Handy •Nickname: "FFat he r o f t h e Bl ues" •Famous bandleader and cornet player S t . L o u i s Bl u e s" •Composed "S The b lues s ca le shifts the third and seventh pitches so they are no longer in tune. These b lue n ot es reflect African influence and make it difficult to determine if a piece is in a major or minor key. GAME, SET, MATCH QUESTIONS Match the composer to the piece. COUNTRY BLUES Scholars call the oldest type of blues the country b lues. Other names also exist. Delta blues •Audience sits and listens •Female vocalist •Accompaniment: piano or com b o (ensemble) •Subjects: love, relationships •Less improvisation M o t h e r o f t h e B l u e s" •Nickname: "M •Toured the The atre O w ners Bo okin g As so ciat ion vaudeville circuit So ut h ern Blu es" (1923) •Recorded "S Each phrase spans four bars The first line repeats with embellishments The poem thus follows the pattern AAB Down home blues Classic Blues Gertrude "Ma" Rainey The singer sings three phrases of poetry over 12 bars. Folk blues Vaudeville blues BIG SHOTS IN THE BLUES Subdominant (IV) BLUE NOTES City blues Southern blues 1. Dame Ethel Smyth A. “St. Louis Blues” 2. W.C. Handy B. “Harlem Rag” 3. Tom Turpin C. “Oriental Rag” 4. James P. Johnson D. “March of the Women” 5. Scott Joplin E. “The Charleston” ANSWERS 1-D; 2-A; 3-B; 4-E; 5-C. MUSIC CRAM KIT | 31 EARLY 20TH-CENTURY ‘‘POPULAR’’ MUSIC ‘‘St. Louis Blues’’ and the Development of Jazz TRACK 7: ‘‘ST. LOUIS BLUES’’ LET’S SEE THOSE JAZZ HANDS! THE BASIC BREAKDOWN Three early approaches to jaz z appeared in the early Modern era. M a j o r Wo r k C o m po s e r Ge n re In s t ru me nt at i o n Ye ar ‘‘St. Louis Blues’’ W.C. Handy New Orleans Jazz Dixieland Jazz Chicago Jazz Blues Singer --- Bessie Smith Cornet --- Louis Armstrong Reed-pipe organ --- Fred Longshaw TELL ME A STORY Ne w O rlean s contained a dense ‘‘rred-ligh t dist rict’’ Sto ry ville.’’ The bars and brothels in Storyville called ‘‘S used music to attract customers. The resulting genre became known as New O rlean s Jazz. 1914 (recording) Characteristics BREAKING THE MOLD Handy does not conform completely to the 12-bar blues format. He interrupts the A pattern after two statements The music then features an eight-measure B strain that repeats one A new C melody returns to 12-bar blues structure Limited recording time probably cut off the repetition of the C strain Fast tempo Swing rhythms Improvisation Dissonance Combos also incorporated heterophony and call-andresponse techniques. BLACK AND WHITE Scholars call the music of white jazz musicians Dixie land.’’ In 1917, the Orig ina l Dix ielan d J az z B and ‘‘D actually produced the first recording of jazz. INFLUENCES Handy blends characteristics of ragtime and classic blues in ‘‘St. Louis Blues.’’ Ragtime Classic Blues • Multi-thematic form with three different strains • Contrasting harmonic shift to minor mode in B strain • Tango style in B strain (select performances only) • 12-bar blues form • Combo accompaniment (small ensemble) • Call-and-response techniques (Smith and Armstrong) • Blue notes and melismas • Imitation of country church organ (Longshaw) N e w O r l e a n s J a zz D i x ie l an d African-American performers White performers Little formal musical training ‘‘Proper’’ technique and formal training More improvisation Less improvisation TO THE WINDY CITY In 19 1 7, Secretary of War Ne w ton W. B aker shut down Storyville. Unemployed jazz musicians migrated to Chicago, where they developed Ch ica go Jazz. Compared to New Orleans Jazz, Chicago Jazz featured: Less improvisation and increased sophistication Longer solo breaks (entire strains) Reduced use of heterophonic texture MUSIC CRAM KIT | 32 EARLY 20TH-CENTURY ‘‘POPULAR’’ MUSIC ‘‘Dippermouth Blues’’ TRACK 8: ‘‘DIPPERMOUTH BLUES’’ ‘‘DIPPERMOUTH’’ (CONTINUED) THE BASIC BREAKDOWN ‘‘Dippermouth Blues’’ combines elements of New Orleans and Chicago Jazz. M a j o r Wo r k C o m po s e r Ge n re In s t ru me nt at i o n Ye ar ‘‘Dippermouth Blues’’ Joe ‘‘King’’ Oliver • Heterophony • 12-bar blues form Blues Combo 1923 Chicago • Homophony • St op-t im e choruses The song also exemplifies some standard jazz elements. A WINNING COMBO ‘‘Dippermouth Blues’’ used a standard New Orleans Jazzstyle combo. Joe "King" Oliver Cornet Louis Armstrong Combo Players New Orleans Trombone Honoré Dutry Clarinet Johnny Dodds Woodblock Warren "Baby" Dodds Banjo & Vocals Bill Johnson Piano Lillian Hardin STICKS AND STONES Several members of the combo had interesting nicknames. Joe ‘‘King’’ Oliver Oliver formed his own band,, K ing O l i v e r ’ s C r e o l e J a z z B an d The lead cornet player of a combo was called ‘‘King’’ Louis Armstrong Dippermo uth’’ refers to his ‘‘D mouth, which was ‘‘big as a dipper’’ Sa tchm o’’ for He was also called ‘‘S ‘‘Satchel Mouth’’ Lillian Hardin As a girl, she was called ‘‘JJaz z W onder C hild’’ After marrying Louis, she took the name Lil Har din Arm st rong Swing rhythms pervade the piece Oliver uses the wah -wah mu te, which alters the cornet’s timbre BEATIN’ THE BLUES AND JAZZIN’ IT UP QUESTIONS 1. Which instrument did Fred Longshaw play in “St. Louis Blues”? 2. How many strains does “St. Louis Blues” feature? 3. What was the name of New Orleans’ infamous redlight district? 4. Who ordered the closure of the above district? 5. Which ensemble produced the first known recording of jazz music? 6. What instrument did Warren “Baby” Dodds play for “Dippermouth Blues”? 7. What were Louis Armstrong’s two nicknames? 8. What device did Oliver use to alter his cornet’s timbre? ANSWERS 1. Reed-pipe organ 2. Three 3. Storyville 4. Secretary of War Newton W. Baker 5. Original Dixieland Jazz Band 6. Woodblock 7. “Dippermouth” and “Satchmo” 8. Wah-wah mute MUSIC CRAM KIT | 33 EARLY 20TH-CENTURY ‘‘POPULAR’’ MUSIC New Theatrical Music and In Dahomey STAGING A COMEBACK TRACK 9: IN DAHOMEY OPERETTA Originally, the United States imported foreign operettas like The Merry Wi dow. However, by the 20th century, American composers were creating their own operettas. THE BASIC BREAKDOWN M a j o r Wo r k Fe at u r e d E x ce rp t C o m po s e r Characteristics Ge n re •Emphasized the trained voice •Told romantic fantasies •Used flowing waltz melodies •Marketed tunes to dance orchestras In s t ru me nt at i o n Ye ar Examples Harry von Tilzer & Vincent Bryan Musical comedy Singer --- Aida Overton Walker Orchestra 1902 ‘‘I Wants to Be (A Actor Lady)’’ was an in terpo lation, which means it was added after the show began its Broadway run. The producers decided Aida needed more stage time, so they gave her this s tar-tu rn. MUSICAL COMEDY George Edwardes •English composer who created the genre in the late 19th century •Wrote believable characters who delivered witty lines George M. Cohan •American composer who popularized the new genre •Wrote patriotic shows like L ittle Joh n n y Jo n es •Wrote In Dah om ey (1902) starring African-American actors BREAKING THE COLOR BARRIER In Dahomey was a major breakthrough. The musical was created by African-American writers and starred AfricanAmerican actors. The show starred Bert Williams and George Walker Walker’s wife Aida Ov erto n Walke r played the role ‘‘I Wants to Be (A Actor Lady)’’ [INSERT SONG HERE] •The Wizard of Oz •Babes in Toyland •Naughty Marietta Will Marion Cook In Dahomey of R os etta Li gh tfoot P aul Lau rence Dunb ar and Jes se Shi pp helped Cook write the script Contrary to early fears, In Dahomey met critical success in both the United States and England. It opened successfully on Broadway. It then went on to run five times as long on London’s W est En d. LIST OF REFERENCES In this song, Rosetta Lightfoot mocks Carrie Brown’s Broadway hopes. The lyrics include many references. Ly r i c R e fe rs to ‘‘Miss Carter’’ A famous red-haired actress ‘‘Laura Jean Libby’’ A romance writer ‘‘Maiden’s Prayer’’ A poem by Edith Nesbit ‘‘Troskeena Wellington,’’ ‘‘Ha! The child’s in London’’ Climactic lines from contemporary plays BY POPULAR DEMAND The song uses many typical features of popular songs. Vamp: short motif that repeats until performer is prepared to sing V erse-cho rus f orm: narrative verses alternate with a refrain/chorus Topical references and modern melodies (ragtime rhythms MUSIC CRAM KIT | 34 EARLY 20TH-CENTURY ‘‘POPULAR’’ MUSIC Revue, Tin Pan Alley, and ASCAP THE YEAR IN REVUE ASCAP R evue began in 19th century Paris. Each year, French performers staged a satirical ‘‘review’’ of the past year. Early 20th-century composers recognized the need to protect their compositions. A PROTOTYPE FOR SNL? American performers adopted the revue in the late 19th century. 1909 Victor Herbert testified before •V Congress about the importance of royalties •His efforts led to the first major American copyright law 1910 Giacom o P uccin i complained about •G restaurant orchestras playing pieces from Madama Butterfly without paying royalties 1914 •Nine composers formed the A m e rican S o cie t y of Co mp os e rs , A u t h o r s , an d P u b l i s h e r s (A S C AP ) •Members included Victor Herbert and Raymond Hubbell 1917 •The Supreme Court ruled that venues had to license rights from ASCAP to perform ASCAP music Th e Passing S how premiered in 1894 The Zie gfeld Fo llies became the most famous revues in the United States Without a plot, revues easily incorporated new interpolations Go o dby e The Passing Show of 1917 added ‘‘G B roadw ay, He llo Fr ance ’’ when American soldiers went overseas GOING PLATINUM The 1908 Follies was the first American revue to Sh i ne On , debut a hit song. That song was ‘‘S Ha rves t Moon ’’ by vaudeville team Nora B ayes and Jack No rwo rth . TIN PAN ALLEY Tin P an A lley’’ songs dominated American popular ‘‘T music from the 1880s to the 1950s. The major American music publishers clustered on 2 8th St ree t in New Yo rk City Each publishing house had pianos so customers could try the music Hired s on g-pl ugge rs also "pounded the piano" to advertise new pieces Journalist M onro e R os enf elt compared the noise to tin pans clanging together, hence the nickname The term became associated with the catchy tunes published in the area LET’S REVUE THE FACTS FILL IN THE BLANK 1. One popular operetta imported by the United States was ________________. 2. Aida Overton Walker played ____________ in In Dahomey. 3. A _______ repeats until a performer is ready to sing. 4. The ___________ were the most famous revues in the United States. 5. ____________ and ____________ wrote “Shine On, Harvest Moon.” 6. ASCAP stands for the _______________________. ANSWERS 1. The Merry Widow 2. Rosetta Lightfoot 3. Vamp 4. Ziegfeld Follies 5. Nora Bayes; Jack Norworth 6. American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers MUSIC CRAM KIT | 35 EARLY 20TH-CENTURY ‘‘POPULAR’’ MUSIC ‘‘Take Me Out to the Ball Game’’ TRACK 10: ‘‘TAKE ME OUT TO THE BALL GAME’’ THE BASIC BREAKDOWN M a j o r Wo r k C o m po s e r Ge n re In s t ru me nt at i o n Ye ar ‘‘Take Me Out to the Ball Game’’ Jack Norworth & Albert von Tilzer Tin Pan Alley popular song ‘‘TAKE ME OUT’’ (CONTINUED) COMPARE AND CONTRAST Like many Tin Pan Alley songs, ‘‘Take Me Out to the Ball Game’’ and ‘‘I Wants to Be’’ have some elements in common. There are some differences, however. Similarities Differences Singer --- Ed Meeker 1908 •Both songs include an introduction and a vamp •Both songs follow verse-chorus form •"Take Me Out" is set in T em po di triple-meter "T Vals e" (waltz tempo) •"I Wants to Be" uses ragtime rhythms NICKELODEONS AND DIMES This song was popular in nick elodeo ns and movie houses. Nickelodeons were small movie theaters with seated rows and a shared screen Theatre owners displayed m agi c-lan tern sho ws to entertain the audience between films Song-pluggers advertised new music during this time The Yo rk M us ic C o mpany created an innovative ‘‘ss ong play’’ for ‘‘Take Me Out to the Ball Game’’ Models recreated the storyline The producers shot photographs at New York's Polo Grounds, a baseball stadium The song play set these photographs to the tune Sheet music sales for "Take Me Out to the Ball Game" skyrocketed MOVING UP TO THE BIG LEAGUES Within ‘‘Take Me Out to the Ball Game,’’ the shape of the melodic line differs between the verses and the chorus. Verses •First phrase is very stepwise •Second line repeats the melody a step higher, creating a s equ ence •Most of the melody uses four-bar phrases •The shift to two-bar phrases demands attention Chorus •The first two lines feature a disjunct melody •The third line returns to a conjunct contour •However, it incorporates chromatic notes that do not belong in D major BUY ME SOME PEANUTS AND… ‘‘Take Me Out to the Ball Game’’ reached great popularity. Baseball crowds began to sing the song during the seventh-inning stretch The American and National Leagues made the tune their official song in 1913 Today, ‘‘Take Me Out to the Ball Game’’ is the third most-recognizable American song In his will, Jack Norworth donated his royalties to the ASCAP foundation, benefiting future songwriters ’’Take Me Out to the Ball Game’’ popularized C racke r Jack s, a treat consisting of popcorn, peanuts, and molasses. MUSIC CRAM KIT | 36 EARLY 20TH-CENTURY ‘‘POPULAR’’ MUSIC The Development of Film Music COOKIE-CUTTER MUSIC MACHINE OVER MAN Like live vaudeville entertainments, the earliest public films used stock music. Inventors devoted their attention to synchronizing recorded sound with film. German filmmaker Max Skladon owsky hired an orchestra to play classical music The Lu m ière b rothers paid a pianist to mask the sound of their Cinématographe projector Publishers created books of movie cues for movies Using live accompanists created inconsistency, so film directors looked for another solution HAVE IT YOUR WAY Customization of film scores came in stages. Arrangements of preexisting classical music Custom scores for orchestra Sound-onfilm Sound-ondisc After WWI, the vacuum tube enabled directors to produce ‘‘talkies.’’ Film studios decided to pursue the "soundon-film" approach Theaters invested in equipment for displaying the new "sound" films Custom scores for solo piano More than 100,000 musicians lost their jobs Fi l m (d i r e ct o r ) A cco m p l i sh me n t Kingdom of the Fairies First newly composed cu s tom film score for solo piano, 1903 (Georges Méliès) The Assassination of the Duke of Guise The Birth of a Nation (D.W. Griffith) The Fall of a Nation First custom score for orchestra, 1908 Written by Camille SaintSaëns First hit song from a movie, 1915 ‘‘The Perfect Song’’ by Joseph Carl Breil First custom score for an American movie, 1916 Written by Victor Herbert PITCHING AND REELING QUESTIONS 1. Who sings “Take Me Out to the Ball Game” on the USAD recording? 2. Which company created the “song play” for “Take Me Out to the Ball Game”? 3. What is the tempo of “Take Me Out to the Ball Game”? 4. Which film used the first custom orchestral score? 5. Who wrote the first custom score used in an American film? ANSWERS 1. Ed Meeker 2. York Music Company 3. Tempo di Valse 4. The Assassination of the Duke of Guise 5. Victor Herbert MUSIC CRAM KIT | 37 MUSICAL RESPONSE TO ‘‘THE GREAT WAR’’ Musicians at War and on the Home Front SERVICE WITH A SMILE… …OR WITH A SIGH Several musicians eagerly participated in the war effort. Other musicians were more reluctant to serve. Maurice Ravel (France) •Rejected from air force because he was underweight •Served as a driver for the motor transport corps •Contracted dysentery in Fall 1916 Anton Webern (Austria) •Originally rejected from military due to poor eyesight •Later trained new recruits for service •Discharged in December 1916 after army reevaluated his eyesight Béla Bartók (Hungary) George Butterworth (England) Ralph Vaughan Williams (England) Alban Berg (Austria) •Drafted by Austrian army in June 1915 •Assigned to office job in Vienna due to asthma •Wrote Expressionist opera Wo z zec k after the war, painting war in unfavorable light Arnold Schoenberg (Austria) •Drafted in 1915 •Discharged in October 1916 due to poor health •Failed military physical exams again and again •Collected folk songs from soldiers instead of taking up arms Irving Berlin (United States) •Drafted in 1918 Oh ! Ho w I Hate to Get U p i n the •Wrote "O M o r n i n g" •Promoted to sergeant •Wrote the revue Yi p , Yi p, Yap han k to raise funds for a community house for soldiers' loved ones •Served as an officer in the 13th D u r h a m Li g h t I n f a n t r y •Earned the M ilitary Cro ss for valiant leadership in July 1916 •Died in combat in August 1916 at a site later named B utterwort h Tre nch in his honor ‘‘THOSE PEOPLE’’ WWI inspired different opinions about ‘‘foreign’’ music among composers and musicians. •Worked as a wago n o rderly in France and Salonika •Later served as an artillery officer in France •Conducted troops as Director o f M us ic for the First Army of the Britist Expeditionary Force after WWI Gustav Holst •Served as a musical director for the YMCA and demobilized troops Lili Boulanger •Founded the Franco -Ame rican Co m mi tt e e o f t h e Nat i o n a l Co ns ervato ry to support musicians in the war WOMEN IN THE WAR Barred from the front lines, women helped in other ways. Some served as battlefield nurses Others took traditionally male jobs on the home front Yo u’ d B ett er Be Ni ce t o Them Now ’’ referred The song ‘‘Y to the shifting roles of women in the workforce. Some rejected all "imported" music Others believed music transcended national boundaries Supporters of the ‘‘transcendental’’ view included: Arnold Schoenberg Jean Cocteau Claude Debussy Vincent d’Indy Maurice Ravel MUSIC CRAM KIT | 38 MUSICAL RESPONSE TO ‘‘THE GREAT WAR’’ Attitudes toward Foreign Music ‘‘US’’ VS. ‘‘THEM’’ SOLIDARITY THROUGH SONG Many musicians worked in lands far from their home countries. They faced varying levels of xenophobia. Some composers and musicians resisted xenophobia by playing foreign works. ENGLAND Some performers changed names to mask their origins. Basil Hindenburg Basil Cameron Gus Scholz Gus Barret M u s i c i an W ork Vincent d’Indy (France) Conducted Beethoven’s Mis sa So lemnis (Germany) Paul Hindesmith (Germany) Performed Debussy’s St ring Qu artet (France) ALL I WANT FOR CHRISTMAS The C hristm as Truce of 19 14 revealed the unifying power of music. HYPHEN-AMERICANS h yph en-Am erican s’’ refers to The term ‘‘h naturalized citizens who acknowledged their heritage with hyphenated terms (e.g. GermanAmericans, Italian-Americans). UNITED STATES Foreign-born musicians faced difficulty finding work in the United States during the war. Violinist Frit z Kreis ler served in the Austrian army at the start of the war A spontaneous cease-fire spread across the trenches Soldiers on both sides sang carols shared between their cultures A German band played both British and German anthems Soldiers were told not to repeat the Christmas Truce in 1915. He left after a combat injury and moved to the United States Performance venues refused to host him due to his service in an enemy army Ka rl M uck, the German-born conductor of the Bos to n Sympho ny, was another victim of American xenophobia. In 1917, newspapers published rumors that Muck refused to play ‘‘The Star-Spangled Banner’’ In reality, his manager Charles Ellis had not told him of the public’s request for the song The authorities demanded proof that Muck had never served in the German army, which he provided Regardless, he was arrested as ‘‘a dangerous enemy alien’’ and stayed in jail for the rest of WWI NOT AS BAD AS A MILITARY EXAM QUESTIONS 1. Which award did George Butterworth receive? 2. Which opera was inspired by Berg’s military service? 3. Which revue did Berlin write for fundraising purposes in 1918? 4. Which orchestra did Karl Muck direct? ANSWERS 1. Military Cross 2. Wozzeck 3. Yip, Yip, Yaphank 4. Boston Symphony MUSIC CRAM KIT | 39 MUSICAL RESPONSE TO ‘‘THE GREAT WAR’’ War-Inspired Musical Works IN MEMORIAM CHARITY BOOKS Claude Debussy wrote two works to honor fallen troops. KING ALBERT’S BOOK In 1914, the German Kaiser planned to march through Belgium to attack France En blanc e t noir Belgian Kin g Albert refused Germany permission to enter his country Germany invaded Belgium anyway and strictly oppressed Belgian citizens •Title translates to In white and black •Written in 1915 •Meant for two pianos •Each movement had a short epigraph " N oë l d es en fants qui n’ont plus de mais ons " •Title translates to "Christmas Carol of the Homeless Children" •Art song published in French and English •Debussy's last composition Other composers also wrote memorial songs. As Belgium's ally, England entered WWI The S pirit of En gland (1917) Writer Ha ll C ain e worked with the Daily Teleg raph to compile Kin g Albert’ s Book. 237 writers, politicians, and composers sent works for publication Caine donated the proceeds to the Belg ian F un d Later, King Albert made Caine an officer in the Or der o f L e o po l d o f B e l g i u m C o n tr i bu t o r C o n tri bu t i on Edward Elgar C arillo n, a choral piece Claude Debussy B e r c e u s e h é r o ï qu e , a •Composed by Edward Elgar •Instrumentation: soprano, chorus, orchestra •Dedicatory title for each movement L e Tombe au de Coupe r in (1917) •Composed by Maurice Ravel •Tombeau means "tombstone" or "grave" in French •Each movement honored a specific war victim Toccat a, " commemorates •The final movement, "T J o se ph d e Mar l i av e piano piece Still others composed works that reflected general despair of the war. LE LIVRE DES SANS-FOYER Novelist Edith W h arton compiled a book called Le liv re des s ans- fo yer in 1916. LEFT TO HIS OWN DEVICES The French title means ‘‘The Book of the Homeless’’ The book included 52 essays, drawings, After having his right arm amputated, pianist P aul W it tgens tein sent out a call for pieces written for left hand only. Many composers of all nationalities responded to his request. compositions, and art pieces Igor Stravinsky wrote Souve nir d’une m arche b o che (‘‘Recollection of a Kraut March’’) for the anthology Wharton donated the proceeds to two causes American hostels for war refugees The Children of Flanders Rescue Committee Stravinsky Ravel •A Soldier's Tale (1918) did not focus on any particular individuals or groups •"Three Beautiful Birds from Paradise" represented the French flag •This piece appeared in Three Songs for Unaccompanied Mixed Chorus MUSIC CRAM KIT | 40 MUSICAL RESPONSE TO ‘‘THE GREAT WAR’’ Wartime Popular Music and ‘‘It’s a Long, Long Way to Tipperary’’ MANY ROLES TRACK 11: ‘‘IT’S A LONG… TIPPERARY’’ Appealed to sentiment THE BASIC BREAKDOWN M a j o r Wo r k Built morale Evoked nostalgia C o m po s e r Ge n re Music In s t ru me nt at i o n Ye ar ‘‘It’s a Long, Long Way to Tipperary’’ Jack Judge Popular song Singer --- John McCormack 1912 TEARING UP OVER HERE Several popular pieces tugged at listeners’ heartstrings. The song began as an obscure music hall piece Wh e n t h e Ro ll is Calle d U p "W Yo nd e r" (" I' ll B e T he re " ) •Written by Jam es M. B lack in 1893 •Focused on comforting thoughts of the future " H e l l o , C e n t r a l , Gi v e M e N o M an' s Land " •Lyrics by Sam M . Lewis and Jo e You ng •Music by Jean Sch wartz •1918 song that featured a young toddler asking a telephone operator to connect her to her father overseas •Included the relatively new invention of the telephone An Irish regiment popularized the song while marching through B ou logn e, France The British army quickly adopted the T he M archin g A nt he m o n song as "T t h e B a t t l e f i e l d s o f E u r o p e" MUSICAL ELEMENTS T h e R o s e o f N o M a n ' s L a n d" "T •Verse-chorus form reveals Tin Pan Alley influence •Includes introduction and vamp (vamp omitted in recording) •Written by Georg e Go rdo n & R ob ert Bru ce in 1918 •Honored Red Cross nurses on the front lines •Commonly featured at concert parties •Accompaniment resembles military band •Back-up singers use ba rb ers ho p ha rmo nie s Form Soldiers favored songs that lamented the distance between home and the war front. "There's a Long, Long Trail" •1912 piece by Zo Elliott and Sto ddard Kin g •Used by British soldiers as a battle march "Keep the Home Fires Burning" •1915 piece by pilot Ivo r Novel lo •Caused the British Home Office to commission Novello to write more moraleboosting songs Instruments Rhythm •Duple meter suited to marching •Use of fermatas I’D LIKE A SHAVE, PLEASE B arbe rsho p singing involved four voices without instrumental accompaniment. This style often featured tritone intervals and seventh chords. MUSIC CRAM KIT | 41 MUSICAL RESPONSE TO ‘‘THE GREAT WAR’’ More Wartime Popular Songs TEARS AND LAUGHTER Both sides wrote songs to express grief. Song No t es ‘‘Cathédrale de R eims’’ Expressed French grief at the German destruction of Rheim s C at hedral in 1914 Set to the popular tune ‘‘ C’es t si jo lie la f emme’’ ‘‘The B raves t He art o f All’’ ‘‘Af ter the W ar I s O v e r ( Wi l l T h e r e B e A n y ‘ Ho m e Sweet Ho me’ ?)’’ Written by Arthu r J. La mb and He n ry C l i q ue Tribute to Edith C av ell, a Red Cross hospital matron who helped Allied prisoners escape to the Netherlands Written by E. J. P ourmo n, Jo se ph Woo druf f, and Henry A n d ri eu Lyrics offered a depressing prediction for postwar Europe PACIFIST MUSIC P acif is t s ongs urged the United States government to remain neutral. Many of the most popular songs spoke from a parent’s point of view. Some pleaded with sons not to go to war Others begged the government not to take their sons "Don't Take My Darling Boy Away" • Lyrics by Will Dillon • Music by Alb er t von Tilzer • Lyrics from a mother's point of view "Stay Down Here Where You Belong" • Written by Irving Berlin in 1914 • The Devil's point of view • "Down Here" refers to Hell POP(ULAR) QUIZ MORE THAN A RIVER IN EGYPT American soldier John J aco b Niles collected the music of African-American troops during WWI. He served in the America n Expedit ionary Force . One Grav e- Diggers.’’ song he collected was ‘‘G LAUGH IT OFF Humorous songs helped many soldiers face the prospect of battle. One such song was the French tune ’’ Qu and M adel on’’ (‘‘When Madelon’’). C amille Ro be rt composed the music and Louis B ou sq ue t wrote the lyrics. PLAY ALONG Instrumental music also raised soldiers’ spirits. Soldiers found instruments in wrecked villages Some troops brought instruments like harmonicas and violins Makeshift orchestras played repertory by famous composers FILL IN THE BLANK 1. Writer _______ compiled King Albert’s Book. 2. Stravinsky contributed ___________ to Le livre des sans-foyer. 3. Ravel’s “Toccata” commemorates _________. 4. ____________ sings “It’s a Long, Long Way to Tipperary” on the CD. 5. ____________ features four voices singing without instrumental accompaniment. 6. John Jacob Niles served in the _______________. ANSWERS 1. Hall Caine 2. Souvenir d’une marche boche 3. Joseph de Marliave 4. John McCormack 5. Barbershop singing 6. American Expeditionary Force MUSIC CRAM KIT | 42 MUSICAL RESPONSE TO ‘‘THE GREAT WAR’’ ‘‘I Didn’t Raise My Boy to Be a Soldier’’ and Recruitment Songs THE BASIC BREAKDOWN When the war began, composers wrote pieces encouraging men to enlist. American entry into the war inspired a new wave of recruitment songs. M a j o r Wo r k ‘‘I Didn’t Raise My Boy to Be a Soldier’’ C o m po s e r Alfred Bryan & Al Piantadosi Ge n re Pacifist popular song In s t ru me nt at i o n Piccolo, barbershop quartet (Peerless Quartet) Ye ar 1915 PARENTAL GUIDANCE SUGGESTED The song was subtitled ‘‘A Mother’s Plea for Peace, respectfully dedicated to every Mother --everywhere’’ The song became a rallying cry for pacifist parents MUSICAL FEATURES Allusion Style •First phrase sounds like an older Irish tune, Th e M o r e en" "T •Unlike that song, this melody uses versechorus form Mar z ial e" (march-like) tempo •"M •Upbeat, energetic popular tune •Refrain ends with forceful rallying cry Your King a nd "Y Your Count ry Wa nt You" by Paul A. Rubens premiered this year British recruitment rallies regularly used this song France played two songs from the French Revolution to rally its citizens. "Chant du départ" •Parisian crowds sang it the night before the French army mobilized Song ‘‘I’ll Do Without Meat and I’ll Do Without Wheat But I Can’t Do Without Love’’ The sinking of the Lu s itania in 1917 decreased the popularity of pacifist tunes. That year, the United States entered WWI. The V ict o r Talki ng M a chin e C om pany withdrew ‘‘I Didn’t Raise My Boy to Be a Soldier’’ shortly after. "La Marseillaise" •The French national anthem NOT-SO-SUBLIMINAL MESSAGING •Barbershop harmonies reinforce the lively sound I RETRACT MY STATEMENT What Kind of "W A m e r i c a n A re You?" "For Your Country and My Country" (Irving Berlin) "Let's All Be Americans Now" (Irving Berlin) PATRIOTISM ‘‘Keep Cool! The Country’s Saving Fuel’’ Quartet 1917 YOUR COUNTRY WANTS YOU 1914 TRACK 12: ‘‘I DIDN’T RAISE… A SOLDIER’’ ‘‘The Makin’s of the U.S.A’’ M e ss ag e Subtitled ‘‘And I had to Come Home in the Dark’’ Urged Americans to walk instead of drive Premiered in 1918 Promoted ‘‘belttightening’’ Advertised a campaign to send cigarettes to soldiers abroad MUSIC CRAM KIT | 43 MUSICAL RESPONSE TO ‘‘THE GREAT WAR’’ Morale-Boosting Songs and ‘‘Over There’’ A MUSICAL PEP SQUAD Ernst Lissauer John Philip Sousa TRACK 13: ‘‘OVER THERE’’ •German private H as s ge s a ng ge ge n •Composed "H England" (Hymn of Hate against England) THE BASIC BREAKDOWN M a j o r Wo r k C o m po s e r •Wrote "Sabre and Spears" and "Solid Men to the Front" •Reimagined "Over Hill, Over Dale" as the U. S. Field Artille ry March TAKING LEAVE FROM REALITY Different armies entertained soldiers with theatrical performances. RUSSIA Allowed theatrical entertainments called estradas Began in public theaters, then moved to hospitals and areas close to the front lines Ge n re In s t ru me nt at i o n Ye ar ‘‘Over There’’ George M. Cohan Popular Song Singer --- Nora Bayes 1917 HISTORICAL CONTEXT The declaration inspired Cohan to write "Over There" The United States entered the war on April 6, 1917 Many listeners considered it the ultimate patriotic song GERMANY GIVING BACK Germany used stage musicals to justify its actions during the war. Cohan donated the royalties from ‘‘Over There’’ to war charities. In 1936, he received a Co ngress io nal Go ld M edal for his contributions. Some claimed that Belgium's Flemish people were Germanic MUSICAL ELEMENTS The Germans rationalized that these people deserved independence from Belgium The shows depicted romances between Flemish girls and German soldiers FRANCE The French army imposed strict standards on performers. 1. A troupe could have no more than six performers 2. Tours could only last two to three days 3. Performances could only occur in encampments behind the line of fire Cohan called the piece a dramatization of a bugle call. He opened the chorus with a second-inversion triad: D (third) F (fifth) Bb (root) Most of Cohan’s melodies used the same four major and minor chords. However, he made up for this lack of skill with a keen sense for audience preferences. He used the standard verse-chorus form of catchy popular tunes He incorporated patriotic references His phrases were short and repetitive He set the piece to a quick duple meter YOUR MILEAGE MAY VARY Foreign listeners did not react as favorably as Americans. They disliked the blatant patriotism. MUSIC CRAM KIT | 44 MUSICAL RESPONSE TO ‘‘THE GREAT WAR’’ Groundbreaking Music and ‘‘On Patrol in No Man’s Land’’ SOLDIERS OF COLOR TRACK 14: ‘‘ON PATROL IN NO MAN’S LAND’’ Non-white American soldiers faced prejudice. Soldiers of color had participated in the U.S. army since the Revolution THE BASIC BREAKDOWN M a j o r Wo r k ‘‘On Patrol in No Man’s Land’’ C o m po s e r The 1 0th C ava lry consisted of AfricanB uf fa l o S ol dier s” during American “B the Spanish-American War Ge n re In s t ru me nt at i o n Ye ar Despite this history, prejudice persisted even during the Great War James Reese Europe, Noble Sissle, & Eubie Blake Popular song Singer --- Noble Sissle 1918 EUROPE, THE AMERICAN CASE IN POINT C olonel L ina rd of the American Expeditionary Force exemplified this discrimination. Linard sent a letter to the French military He titled it Secr et Information Con cerning Black A m e ri ca n T roo ps Early Life Adult Musical Career •Conducted a New York orchestra •Founded the Cl ef C lub, a union of African-American musicians •Directed the first black orchestra to perform at Carnegie Hall Military Career •Enlisted as a private in the all-black 15 th In fa n t r y Re g i m e n t •Later transferred to the 36 9th In fan t ry Re g im e nt "He llf ig h t e rs " •Created the army's finest band •The first African-American officer to lead troops into combat during WWI •Injured in a 1918 gas attack, inspiring "On Patrol in No Man's Land" The letter contained instructions for the treatment of black soldiers (e.g. segregation) The more open-minded French soldiers largely ignored Linard’s warnings SMALL STEPS They may seem condescending and stereotypical to us now, some Tin Pan Alley songs highlighted the patriotism of minority soldiers. "The Ragtime Volunteers Are Off to War" "When the Lord Makes a Record of a Hero's Deeds, He Draws No Color Line" "They'll be Mighty Proud in Dixie of Their Old Black Joe" "You'll Find Old Dixieland in France" "Indianola" •Studied piano and violin with John Philip Sousa's Marine Band THE SONG Tin Pan Alley influence Introduction and vamp Repeated refrain Contemporary sayings Unusual elements Instruments and voices imitate explosions and guns Realistic sounds of an attack during repetition of refrain MUSIC CRAM KIT | 45 CRUNCH KIT Music in Four Pages (1) BASICS OF SOUND AND MUSIC Music is broadly defined as ‘‘sound organized in time’’ A sound wave’s frequency determines its pitch; its amplitude determines decibel level (relative loudness) Ethnomusicologists study the music of foreign cultures and/or compare music of multiple cultures Sachs and Hornbostel identified four classifications of instruments: Chordophones (vibrating strings) membranophones (vibrating membranes), aerophones (vibrating columns of air), and idiophones (vibrating body) String, brass, woodwind, percussion, and keyboard ‘‘families’’ also group Western instruments PITCH Pitch refers to a sound’s relative highness or lowness Overtones of higher frequency ‘‘color’’ the fundamental pitch to produce timbre Equal temperament tuning divides the octave into 12 equal parts separated by half steps SCALES An interval describes the distance between any two pitches; the half step is the smallest interval A scale contains an arrangement of pitches a set pattern of whole and half steps, beginning on a tonic pitch The fifth scale degree, the dominant, serves as an alternate organizational center The leading tone lies a half step below the tonic and resolves, or ‘‘leads,’’ to the tonic Western ears are most familiar with the major scale Three varieties of the minor scale exist: natural, harmonic, and melodic Relative major and minor scales include the same pitches but begin on different tonics Parallel major and minor scales begin on the same tonic but contain different pitches MELODY AND RANGE A melody consists of a sequence of individual pitches perceived as a coherent whole by the listener A melody’s contour describes its shape or profile; it may be conjunct or disjunct Range describes the highest and lowest possible notes on an instrument (including the human voice) Registers describe different parts of range (high, low) A piece with high tessitura requires more high pitches RHYTHM AND METER Rhythm refers to an audible set of varying durations A steady pulse used in most music constitutes a beat RHYTHM AND METER (CONTINUED) Tempo indicates the rate of the beat Composers group beats into measures (bars) of strong and weak beats The meter dictates the pattern of beat emphasis in the piece; it may be simple or compound The time signature indicates the meter of each measure Mixed meter features a series of different meters Irregular meter alternates two different meters in an erratic pattern Polymeter features two or more meters simultaneously The simultaneous presence of two different rhythmic patterns creates polyrhythm and cross-rhythm HARMONY Two or more pitches sounding at once produce harmony Common-practice tonality governs the harmonies in nearly all Western music Three or more notes sounding at once create a chord A triad contains exactly three notes in two intervals of a third each Four qualities of triad exist: major, minor, augmented, and diminished A key determines the pitch relationships within a piece; it centers on the tonic pitch of a scale Pitches in the key are diatonic; pitches outside the key are called chromatic A key signature indicates the pitches consistently raised or flattened in a piece The circle of fifths depicts the relationship between keys HARMONIC PROGRESSION Dissonance produces tension and instability; consonance sounds stable and restful A chord progression consists of a series of triads, each leading to the next The most common chord progression is predominantdominant-tonic Composers often modulate (change) keys BEYOND COMMON PRACTICE In the early 20th century, Arnold Schoenberg created atonal music, which lacked a central tonic pitch He also made the 12-tone method MORE ELEMENTS OF MUSICAL SOUND Texture refers to the interaction of musical layers The four basic textures include monophony, heterophony, homophony, and polyphony Dynamics indicate relative loudness and softness Articulation refers to the mechanics of beginning, sustaining, and releasing a note MUSIC CRAM KIT | 46 CRUNCH KIT Music in Four Pages (2) MUSICAL FORM Form refers to the overall organization of a musical piece The smallest recurring musical idea is a motive; it is the most basic unit of form A phrase consists of a unified musical thought Musical resting points are called cadences; they end many musical phrases, themes, and pieces Themes include complete melodies Variation forms change the theme; however, it must remain recognizable Changing-background variations form alters the accompaniment while keeping the melody constant Ternary form includes three parts Fugue uses imitation to develop a single fugue subject First movements often feature sonata form Long classical compositions often include several movements; the sonata cycle is most common MUSICAL STYLE PERIODS (ERAS) Scholars divide music history into six broad style periods Composers of the same era write music with similar characteristics During the first musical era, the Middle Ages (c. 8001400), the first attempts at music notation occurred The Renaissance period succeeded the Middle Ages The next eras were the Baroque, Classical, and Romantic eras, respectively The sixth style period, called the Modern era, began in the early 1900s and continues today A canon refers to a body of works with enduring popularity A canon of art music developed in the early 20th century NEW TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS Advances in radio technology dramatically transformed 20th-century culture After the Titanic sank, the Radio Act of 1912 established federal regulations for the use of radio Thomas Edison’s phonograph and Columbia’s gramophone revolutionized audio recording Many WWI soldiers brought portable gramophones with them to the front lines Ethnomusicologists used the new audio recording technology to collect folk and ethnic music Innovators also worked to synchronize film and sound technology using sound-on-disk and sound-on-film techniques Lee De Forest used a vacuum tube to achieve audio synchronization with film, allowing the first ‘‘talkies’’ IMPRESSIONISM Impressionism emerged as a style of painting in 19th century France Claude Monet sparked the trend with Impression: Sunrise The movement emphasized light and color over form, resulting in indefinite images French composers imitated the style by deemphasizing rhythm and form in favor of timbre The Symbolist movement in French poetry also influenced musical Impressionism TRACK 1: PRÉLUDES, ‘‘VOILES’’ Romantic composer Frédéric Chopin reinvented the prelude as a stand-alone character piece A character piece musically depicts a visual image Debussy wrote two volumes of Préludes as a tribute to Chopin, each containing 12 works for solo piano ‘‘Voiles’’ follows ABA ternary form, but the boundaries of each section are unclear The A section uses a whole-tone scale, while the B section uses a pentatonic scale EXPRESSIONISM Expressionism evokes unease and other strong emotions Expressionist art features warped, exaggerated figures and non-naturalistic colors Composers of this style aimed to create an unsettling effect with dissonance and erratic rhythms Arnold Schoenberg pioneered the movement with his composition Erwartung The Second Viennese School also dabbled in the style TRACK 2: PIERROT LUNAIRE, ‘‘NACHT’’ Pierrot is a stock character from commedia dell’arte Symbolist poetry inspired the song cycle Cabaret singer Albertine Zehme commissioned the piece Schoenberg specifies unconventional instrumentation: five players and eight instruments, plus a reciter ‘‘Nacht’’ is a passacaglia, a form that features a repeating basso ostinato motif The reciter and instruments employ various techniques to create a dark, frightening atmosphere PRIMITIVISM Primitivism focuses on the contrast between humans and nature, emphasizing ancestral images Primitivist art draws inspiration from traditional art of Africa and the Pacific Islands Primitivist music emphasized primal sounds like percussive rhythms Musical Primitivists avoided elements of cultured concert music, including common-practice tonality MUSIC CRAM KIT | 47 CRUNCH KIT Music in Four Pages (3) TRACK 3: RITE OF SPRING Before Rite of Spring, Stravinsky successfully debuted two other ballets in Paris: The Firebird and Petrushka Rite of Spring focuses on an ancient Russian pagan ritual Vaclav Nijinsky’s choreography instructed the dancers to appear awkward and inelegant, a Primitivist approach The Introduction includes a folk melody Stravinsky avoids common-practice harmonies using an octatonic scale and a polychord Stravinsky uses strong percussion to imitate ritual drums Though initially unsuccessful, Rite of Spring eventually achieved great acclaim NATIONALISM Nationalism allowed musicians to express patriotism and defiance of invaders Two nationalist French organizations emerged: the Société Nationale de Musique and Les Six English nationalists focused on their nation’s heritage and landscape Spanish nationalism arose with French encouragement Charles Ives was one of the first great American classical composers Many nationalists incorporated folk material in their works TRACK 4: ROMANIAN CHRISTMAS CAROLS Béla Bartók wrote this collection of 20 teaching pieces for solo piano in 1915 It is a nationalistic Hungarian work containing folk tunes from the Transylvanian region of Romania Bartók created original settings to highlight each carol The carols are modal and rhythmically flexible, reflecting ethnic influence ATONALITY Atonality resembles the artistic style Cubism, which tried to show multiple views of an object at once Atonal music does not center on a tonic note Arnold Schoenberg heavily guided this movement He championed ‘‘Emancipation of the Dissonance’’ TRACK 5: BAGATELLE NO. 5 A bagatelle is a short character piece Anton Webern, one of Schoenberg’s protégés, composed this piece The piece demonstrates atonality and introduces the aggregate (the set of all pitches in the octave) This Klangfarbenmelodie (‘‘tone-color melody’’) emphasizes timbre more than the rise and fall of a melody MUSICAL TRADITIONS FROM THE 19TH CENTURY Technological progress helped spread folk music, originally a rural tradition, to urban audiences Spin-offs of the traditional opera included the operetta Minstrel shows featured actors in black-face make-up who exaggerated African-American mannerisms on stage Music hall tunes were popular with British soldiers A vaudeville show involved a series of diverse acts (turns) accompanied by stock music indicated by a cue sheet Military and community bands often played marches Gospel hymns were religious hymns that adopted features of popular music In the early 20th century, many nations adopted anthems RAGTIME Ragtime featured ‘‘ragged’’ syncopated rhythms over a steady ‘‘oom-pah’’ rhythm The style mostly applied to piano pieces called rags Scott Joplin was called the ‘‘King of Ragtime’’ Ragtime inspired swing rhythms, which lengthened the first note in a pair to create a sing-song effect Stride piano resulted when pianists added swing to ragtime pieces Ragtime also inspired European classical composers TRACK 6: ‘‘MAPLE LEAF RAG’’ The listening track features a piano roll recording of Scott Joplin performing his composition The score indicates Tempo di Marcia (‘‘march tempo’’) The multi-thematic form pays tribute to marches BLUES The blues emerged as a form of catharsis that purged the performer of negative emotions The 12-bar blues form is commonly used The ‘‘blues scale’’ features blue notes that reflect African tribal influence Country blues are more improvised than the urbanized classic blues TRACK 7: ‘‘ST. LOUIS BLUES’’ W.C. Handy combined elements of classic blues with characteristics of ragtime in this piece He used multi-thematic form and 12-bar blues structure The recording features Bessie Smith (singer), Louis Armstrong (cornet) and Fred Longshaw (reed-pipe organ) JAZZ The earliest form of jazz, New Orleans Jazz, began in the red-light district ‘‘Storyville’’ ‘‘Dixieland’’ refers to the music of white jazz musicians Chicago Jazz was more sophisticated and planned than New Orleans Jazz MUSIC CRAM KIT | 48 CRUNCH KIT Music in Four Pages (4) TRACK 8: ‘‘DIPPERMOUTH BLUES’’ The title refers to Louis Armstrong’s mouth The song combines New Orleans and Chicago styles Like Chicago Jazz, the piece uses extended solos and shows evidence of advanced planning The song also uses a standard New Orleans combo NEW THEATRICAL TRENDS Musical comedies featured believable characters who delivered clever lines George Cohan popularized the genre in the United States Will Marion Cook’s In Dahomey was a major breakthrough for African-American playwrights and actors TRACK 9: ‘‘I WANTS TO BE (A ACTOR LADY)’’ Harry Tilzer and Vincent Bryan wrote this interpolation for In Dahomey after it began its Broadway run Aida Overton Walker played the role of Rosetta Lightfoot The lyrics feature many contemporary references Like many popular songs, ‘‘I Wants to Be’’ follows versechorus form with an introduction and a vamp TIN PAN ALLEY AND ASCAP ‘‘Tin Pan Alley’’ refers to a New York City street that housed the major American music publishers The term then became associated with the catchy popular tunes published in the area The American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers (ASCAP) aimed to collect fees for public performances of music TRACK 10: ‘‘TAKE ME OUT TO THE BALL GAME’’ Jack Norworth wrote the lyrics and Albert von Tilzer the music This song became popular in nickelodeons (small movie theaters) due to an eye-catching ‘‘song play’’ Ed Meeker performs the version included on the CD FILM MUSIC Initially, vaudeville accompanists played stock music to accompany film showings Over time, custom film scores developed --- first for solo piano and then for orchestra MUSICAL RESPONSE TO WWI Many composers and musicians eagerly enlisted or otherwise served in the war effort Some musicians rejected all ‘‘foreign’’ music, while others believed music could transcend national boundaries ‘‘Hyphen-Americans’’ faced xenophobia during the war Several composers contributed to charity books Others wrote memorial works to commemorate the dead POPULAR MUSIC DURING WWI Popular songs built soldiers’ morale and evoked nostalgia Many soldiers liked songs that lamented the distance between home and the war front Both sides used music to grieve the dead Humorous songs like ‘‘Quand Madelon’’ helped soldiers face the prospect of war TRACK 11: ‘‘IT’S A LONG, LONG WAY TO TIPPERARY’’ Jack Judge and Harry Williams wrote the song in 1912 An Irish regiment popularized the song while marching through France The British army adopted the song as a marching anthem John McCormack performs the version on the CD Back-up singers use barbershop harmonies The duple-meter piece follows verse-chorus form TRACK 12: ‘‘I DIDN’T RAISE MY BOY TO BE A SOLDIER’’ Pacifist songs urged the American government to remain neutral in the conflict Alfred Bryan wrote the lyrics and Al Piantadosi the music The recording features the Peerless Quartet This song became a rallying cry for pacifist parents It was withdrawn in 1917 when the United States entered the war PATRIOTIC SONGS Composers wrote pieces to encourage men to enlist Songs encouraged civilians on the home front to conserve resources during shortages Armies provided soldiers with musical entertainments to raise morale TRACK 13: ‘‘OVER THERE’’ The American declaration of war on Germany led George M. Cohan to write ‘‘Over There’’ Cohan appealed to the expectations of American listeners He used patriotic references and catchy rhythms Nora Bayes sings the version featured on the USAD CD TRACK 14: ‘‘ON PATROL IN NO MAN’S LAND’’ James Reese Europe wrote this song after being injured by a gas attack in 1918 The song follows the conventions of a Tin Pan Alley song Noble Sissle sings the solo verses in the featured version The song uses real military terms and even features sounds of a realistic attack during the refrain’s repetition Instruments and voices mimic the sounds of gunfire, explosions, and mortar attacks The bright tempo emphasizes that life goes on despite the horrors of war MUSIC CRAM KIT | 49 CRUNCH KIT List of Lists 12 HIGH PRIORITY COMPOSERS Bartók, Béla Cohan, George M. Debussy, Claude Europe, James Reese Handy, William Christopher Joplin, Scott Judge, Jack Oliver, Joe ‘‘King’’ Schoenberg, Arnold Stravinsky, Igor von Tilzer, Albert Webern, Anton Hungarian composer and ethnomusicologist who used folk tunes as inspiration for his compositions; wrote ‘‘Romanian Christmas Carols’’ Composer of ‘‘Over There’’; popularized the musical comedy French composer who spearheaded Impressionism; wrote ‘‘Voiles’’ Founder of the Clef Club and composer of ‘‘On Patrol in No Man’s Land’’ Self-declared ‘‘Father of the Blues’’ who wrote ‘‘St. Louis Blues’’ American composer known for ‘‘The Maple Leaf Rag’’; nicknamed ‘‘the King of Ragtime’’ Composer of ‘‘It’s a Long, Long Way to Tipperary’’ Composer of ‘‘Dippermouth Blues’’ German composer who pioneered musical Expressionism and wrote Pierrot lunaire Russian composer of The Rite of Spring Composer of ‘‘Take Me Out to the Ball Game’’ Composer of the atonal work Six Bagatelles 10 MEDIUM PRIORITY COMPOSERS Berlin, Irving Bryan, Alfred Cook, Will Marion Ives, Charles Matthews, Charles Norworth, Jack Piantadosi, Al Sousa, John Philip Turpin, Tom von Tilzer, Harry Prolific Tin Pan Alley composer who wrote ‘‘Stay Down Here Where You Belong’’ Lyricist of ‘‘I Didn’t Raise My Boy to Be a Soldier’’ Composer of In Dahomey The first great American composer English actor who inspired ‘‘Ethiopian delineators’’ and minstrel shows Lyricist of ‘‘Take Me Out to the Ball Game’’ and ‘‘Shine On, Harvest Moon’’ Composer of ‘‘I Didn’t Raise My Boy to Be a Soldier’’ American bandleader who conducted the U.S. Marine Band; nicknamed ‘‘The March King’’ The first black ragtime composer; wrote ‘‘Harlem Rag’’ Composer of ‘‘I Wants to Be (A Actor Lady)’’ for String Quartet 10 LOW PRIORITY COMPOSERS Butterworth, George Chopin, Fréderic Edwardes, George Foster, Stephen Gershwin, George Herbert, Victor Johnson, James P. Puccini, Giacomo Smyth, Dame Ethel Williams, Harry English composer and folk song collector who received the Military Cross in WWI Romantic composer who reinvented the prelude as a stand-alone character piece English composer who pioneered the musical comedy genre Most prominent American composer for minstrel shows Composer of Rhapsody in Blue who began his career as a Tin Pan Alley song-plugger Composer of Babes in Toyland; vocal supporter of composers’ legal rights ‘‘Father of Stride Piano’’ and composer of ‘‘The Charleston’’ Italian composer who wrote the opera Madama Butterfly Composer of Songs of Sunrise, the finale of which became an anthem for English suffragettes With Jack Judge, composer of ‘‘It’s a Long, Long Way to Tipperary’’ 7 HIGH PRIORITY CLASSICAL PIECES ‘‘Nacht’’ The eight song in Schoenberg’s song cycle Pierrot lunaire ‘‘Voiles’’ Bagatelle No. 5 Pierrot lunaire Préludes Romanian Christmas Carols The Rite of Spring The second song in the first volume of Debussy’s Préludes Atonal miniature by Anton Webern Song cycle written by Arnold Schoenberg, commissioned by Albertine Zehme Collection of 12 pieces for solo piano by Claude Debussy Collecction of 20 Transylvanian folk melodies compiled by Béla Bartók in 1915 Stravinsky’s third ballet for the Ballets Russes, a Primitivist work MUSIC CRAM KIT | 50 CRUNCH KIT List of Lists 7 MEDIUM PRIORITY CLASSICAL PIECES En blanc et noir Erwartung Finlandia La Marseillaise Madama Butterfly Symphony of Negro Music The Spirit of England 1915 piece for two pianos by Debussy; each movement includes an epigraph 1909 Expressionist work by Arnold Schoenberg Patriotic composition by Jean Sibelius; became an unofficial national anthem The French national anthem 1904 opera by Puccini Symphony performed by James Reese Europe and the Clef Club orchestra at Carnegie Hall in 1912 1917 work by Edward Elgar for soprano and orchestra 9 HIGH PRIORITY POPULAR SONGS ‘‘Dippermouth Blues’’ ‘‘I Didn’t Raise My Boy to Be a Soldier’’ ‘‘I Wants to Be (A Actor Lady)’’ Song that combines elements of New Orleans Jazz and Chicago Jazz; performed by Joe ‘‘King’’ Oliver and the Creole Jazz Band Pacifist song created by Alfred Bryan and composer Al Piantadosi in 1915 Interpolation for the character Rosetta Lightfoot in the musical comedy In Dahomey ‘‘It’s a Long, Long Way to Tipperary’’ Music hall tune by Jack Judge popularized by an Irish regiment during WWI ‘‘Maple Leaf Rag’’ Piano piece composed by Scott Joplin in 1899 Popular song by James Reese Europe inspired by a 1918 gas attack Popular song composed by George M. Cohan in 1917 Piece by W.C. Handy; performed by Bessie Smith, Louis Armstrong, and Fred Longshaw The third most popular song in the United States, composed by Albert von Tilzer with lyrics by Jack Norworth 7 LOW PRIORITY CLASSICAL PIECES ‘‘The March of the Women’’ Allegro barbaro Goyescas Hassgesang gegen England Le Tombeau de Couperin The Tides of Manaunaun Three Pieces in the Form of a Pear Finale of Ethel Smyth’s Songs of Sunrise; anthem for British suffragettes 1911 Primitivist composition by Béla Bartók 1911 piano suite by Enrique Granados in honor of Francisco Goya ‘‘Hymn of Hate against England’’ written by German Private Ernst Lissauer 1917 piece by Ravel; ‘‘Toccata’’ is dedicated to Captain Joseph de Marliave Piano piece by Henry Cowell infamous for its use of tone clusters Composition by Erik Satie in response to criticism by Claude Debussy 9 MEDIUM PRIORITY POPULAR SONGS ‘‘Harlem Rag’’ ‘‘Quand Madelon’’ 1897 rag published by Tom Turpin Humorous French song by Camille Robert and Louis Bousquet ‘‘Rosebud March’’ ‘‘Shine On, Harvest Moon’’ ‘‘Stay Down Here Where You Belong’’ ‘‘The Perfect Song’’ 1905 piece by Scott Joplin dedicated to Tom Turpin Hit song written and premiered by Nora Bayes and Jack Norworth 1914 pacifist song written by Irving Berlin The first hit song that originated from a film; written by Joseph Carl Breil for The Birth of a Nation ‘‘On Patrol in No Man’s Land’’ ‘‘Over There’’ ‘‘St. Louis Blues’’ ‘‘Take Me Out to the Ball Game’’ ‘‘What Kind of American Are You?’’ ‘‘Your King and Your Country Want You’’ U.S. Field Artillery March Aggressive WWI-era song used in the United States to recruit soldiers Tune written by Paul A. Rubens to recruit British soldiers March adapted from ‘‘Over Hill, Over Dale’’ by John Philip Sousa MUSIC CRAM KIT | 51 CRUNCH KIT List of Lists ESSENTIAL PITCH AND SCALES Chromatic Diatonic Equal temperament Fundamental pitch Half step Interval Key Melody Overtones Pitch Scale Tritone Using pitches outside the key of a piece ‘‘Within the key’’; using pitches in the key System of tuning that divides the octave into twelve equal parts The lowest, strongest and loudest frequency creating a pitch The unit of measure for any interval; also called a semitone The distance between any two pitches Determines the pitch relationships in a piece A sequence of individual pitches interpreted as a coherent whole Higher pitches that ‘‘color’’ the fundamental pitch to create timbre Relative highness or lowness of a sound; determined by the sound wave’s frequency An arrangement of pitches arranged in a set pattern of intervals An extremely dissonant interval consisting of three whole steps VITAL ASPECTS OF HARMONY AND RHYTHM Beat A steady underlying pulse; it can be audible or inaudible Chord Commonpractice tonality Compound meter Consonance Three or more pitches sounding at once An organizational system for harmony that governs nearly all Western music A meter in which the beat is subdivided into three parts The quality of a pitch, interval, or chord that creates a sense of resolution or rest The quality of a pitch, interval, or chord that creates a sense of tension or instability A sequence of chords or intervals that moves from dissonance to consonance Occurs whenever two or more pitches sound at the same time A group of beats in a piece; also called bars A series of audible, varying durations A meter in which each beat is divided in half Accented notes on weak beats or between beats The speed of the beat A chord consisting of three notes spaced in two intervals of a third each Dissonance Harmonic progression Harmony Measures Rhythm Simple meter Syncopation Tempo Triad TYPES AND ELEMENTS OF FORM 12-bar blues 32-bar form Cadence Form Fugue Motive Movement Phrase Sonata form Ternary form Theme A variation form consisting of a 12-measure chord progression A form that adheres to AABA format, with each section consisting of two four-bar phrases A resting point in a musical piece Describes the organization of music on a larger scale Musical device that develops a theme using counterpoint and imitation The smallest distinguishable recurring musical idea within a piece One of several shorter pieces that make up a longer musical work A coherent musical thought; often appear in related pairs A three-part form; often used in the first movement of multi-movement works A form consisting of three parts; also called ABA form A group of phrases that form a complete melody OTHER IMPORTANT MUSICAL DEFINITIONS Music Articulation Dynamics Frequency Instrumentation Ornamentation Range Register Timbre Sound organized in time The mechanics of beginning and ending a sound The loudness and softness of sound; varied for expressive purposes Aspect of a sound wave that determines its pitch The instrument or combination of instruments featured in a given piece Local embellishments added to a piece; usually not written down The pitches an instrument (including the human voice) can produce A portion of an instrument’s range; typically divided into high, middle and low An instrument’s distinct sound as distinguished from other instruments MUSIC CRAM KIT | 52 FINAL TIPS AND ABOUT THE AUTHOR FINAL TIPS Make sure you recognize all 14 listening selections and know the basic facts (title, composer, genre, instrumentation) about them Focus on the big ideas, especially those in Sections II and III Do not get hung up on the nitty-gritty details of music theory; the questions will most likely encompass more ‘‘big picture’’ ideas Understand the characteristics and contributions of major historical eras and artistic movements Expect at least a few questions comparing and contrasting pieces and composers; study the relationships When you reach competition, take a deep breath --and just do your best! ABOUT THE AUTHOR Nico le Chu competed as an Honor student with C inco R an ch High S choo l at the Texas State Competition in 2012. She placed 2nd overall with a score of 9,190.6; her team placed 5th. Given the boot (and a graduation cap) far too soon, Nicole joined DemiDec to combat her Decathlon withdrawal symptoms. She currently attends the Unive rs ity o f Texas at Aus tin, where she is majoring in Business Honors, Plan II Honors, and Management Information Systems. A self-proclaimed extrovert, Nicole welcomes the opportunity to meet other Decathletes. Thus, she humbly offers her email address ([email protected]) in hopes of hearing from you. Yes, you. Questions, concerns, random musings, and funny anecdotes are all welcome. Happy studying!