Download Chapter 15:The Autonomic Nervous System and Visceral Reflexes

Chapter 15
*Lecture PowerPoint
The Autonomic
Nervous System and
Visceral Reflexes
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Introduction
• Autonomic means “self-governed” and fully
independent
• It regulates fundamental states and life processes
such as heart rate, BP, and body temperature
• Walter Cannon coined the terms “homeostasis”
and the “flight-or-fight” reaction, dedicated to his
career in the study of ANS
15-2
General Properties of the Autonomic
Nervous System
• Expected Learning Outcomes
– Explain how the autonomic and somatic nervous
systems differ in form and function.
– Explain how the two divisions of the autonomic
nervous system differ in general function.
15-3
General Properties of the Autonomic
Nervous System
• Autonomic nervous system (ANS)—a motor
nervous system that controls glands, cardiac
muscle, and smooth muscle
– Also called visceral motor system
– Primary organs of the ANS
• Viscera of thoracic and abdominal cavities
• Some structures of the body wall
– Cutaneous blood vessels
– Sweat glands
– Piloerector muscles
15-4
General Properties of the Autonomic
Nervous System
• Autonomic nervous system (ANS) (cont.)
– Carries out actions involuntarily: without our
conscious intent or awareness
• Visceral effectors do not depend on the ANS to
function; only to adjust their activity to the body’s
changing needs
• Denervation hypersensitivity—exaggerated
response of cardiac and smooth muscle if
autonomic nerves are severed
15-5
Visceral Reflexes
•
•
Visceral reflexes—unconscious, automatic,
stereotyped responses to stimulation involving
visceral receptors and effectors and somewhat slower
responses
Visceral reflex arc
– Receptors: nerve endings that detect stretch, tissue damage,
blood chemicals, body temperature, and other internal stimuli
– Afferent neurons: leading to the CNS
– Interneurons: in the CNS
– Efferent neurons: carry motor signals away from the CNS
– Effectors: that make adjustments
•
ANS modifies effector activity
15-6
Visceral Reflexes
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• High blood pressure
detected by arterial
stretch receptors (1),
afferent neuron (2)
carries signal to CNS,
efferent (3) signals
travel to the heart, then
(4) heart slows reducing
blood pressure
• Example of homeostatic
negative feedback loop
2 Glossopharyngeal
nerve transmits signals
to medulla oblongata
1
3 Vagus nerve
transmits
inhibitory
signals
to cardiac
pacemaker
Baroreceptors
sense increased
blood pressure
Common carotid
artery
Terminal
ganglion
4 Heart rate
decreases
Figure 15.1
15-7
Divisions of the ANS
•
Two divisions innervate same target organ
– May have cooperative or contrasting effect
– Prepares body for physical activity: exercise, trauma,
arousal, competition, anger, or fear
• Increases heart rate, BP, airflow, blood glucose levels, etc.
• Reduces blood flow to the skin and digestive tract
•
Parasympathetic division
– Calms many body functions reducing energy expenditure
and assists in bodily maintenance
• Digestion and waste elimination
• “Resting and digesting” state
15-8
Divisions of the ANS
•
Autonomic tone—normal background rate of
activity that represents the balance of the two
systems according to the body’s changing
needs
– Parasympathetic tone
• Maintains smooth muscle tone in intestines
• Holds resting heart rate down to about 70 to 80 beats per
minute
– Sympathetic tone
• Keeps most blood vessels partially constricted and maintains
blood pressure
•
Sympathetic division excites the hearts but
inhibits digestive and urinary function, while
parasympathetic has the opposite effect
15-9
Autonomic Output Pathways
•
ANS has components in both the central and
peripheral nervous systems
– Control nucleus in the hypothalamus and other
brainstem regions
– Motor neurons in the spinal cord and peripheral ganglia
– Nerve fibers that travel through the cranial and spinal
nerves
•
Somatic motor pathway
– A motor neuron from the brainstem or spinal cord
issues a myelinated axon that reaches all the way to
the skeletal muscle
15-10
Autonomic Output Pathways
•
Autonomic pathway
– Signal must travel across two neurons to get to the
target organ
– Must cross a synapse where these two neurons meet
in an autonomic ganglion
– Presynaptic neuron: the first neuron has a soma in
the brainstem or spinal cord
– Synapses with a postganglionic neuron whose axon
extends the rest of the way to the target cell
15-11
Autonomic Output Pathways
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Somatic efferent innervation
ACh
Myelinated
fiber
Somatic effectors
(skeletal muscles)
Autonomic efferent innervation
ACh
Myelinated
preganglionic fiber
ACh or NE
Unmyelinated
postganglionic fiber
Autonomic
ganglion
Visceral effectors
(cardiac muscle,
smooth muscle,
glands)
Figure 15.2
ANS—two neurons from CNS to effectors
• Presynaptic neuron cell body is in CNS
• Postsynaptic neuron cell body is in peripheral ganglion
15-12
Anatomy of the Autonomic
Nervous System
• Expected Learning Outcomes
– Identify the anatomical components and nerve
pathways of the sympathetic and parasympathetic
divisions.
– Discuss the relationship of the adrenal glands to the
sympathetic nervous system.
– Describe the enteric nervous system of the digestive
tract and explain its significance.
15-13
The Sympathetic Division
•
•
•
Also called the thoracolumbar division because it arises
from the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord
Relatively short preganglionic and long postganglionic
fibers
Preganglionic neurosomas in lateral horns and nearby
regions of the gray matter of spinal cord
– Fibers exit spinal cord by way of spinal nerves T1 to L2
– Lead to nearby sympathetic chain of ganglia (paravertebral
ganglia)
• Series of longitudinal ganglia adjacent to both sides of the vertebral
column from cervical to coccygeal levels
• Usually 3 cervical, 11 thoracic, 4 lumbar, 4 sacral, and 1 coccygeal
ganglion
• Sympathetic nerve fibers are distributed to every level of the body
15-14
Sympathetic Chain Ganglia
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Soma of
preganglionic
neuron
To iris, salivary glands,
lungs, heart, thoracic
blood vessels, esophagus
Sympathetic nerve
2
Somatic
motor fiber
Spinal nerve
Preganglionic
sympathetic fiber
Postganglionic
sympathetic fiber
To somatic effector
(skeletal muscle)
1
Soma of
somatic motor
neuron
3
White ramus
Splanchnic nerve
Gray ramus
Preganglionic neuron
Postganglionic neuron
Somatic neuron
Communicating
rami
Collateral ganglion
Soma of
postganglionic
neuron
Postganglionic
sympathetic fibers
Sympathetic
trunk
To liver, spleen, adrenal glands,
stomach, intestines, kidneys,
urinary bladder, reproductive organs
Figure 15.5
To sweat glands,
piloerector muscles,
and blood vessels
of skin and
skeletal muscles
Sympathetic
ganglion
2
15-15
The Sympathetic Division
•
Each paravertebral ganglion is connected to a spinal
nerve by two branches: communicating rami
– Preganglionic fibers are small myelinated fibers that
travel from spinal nerve to the ganglion by way of the
white communicating ramus (myelinated)
– Postganglionic fibers leave the ganglion by way of the
gray communicating ramus (unmyelinated)
• Forms a bridge back to the spinal nerve
– Postganglionic fibers extend the rest of the way to the
target organ
15-16
The Sympathetic Division
•
After entering the sympathetic chain, the
postganglionic fibers may follow any of three
courses
– Some end in ganglia which they enter and synapse
immediately with a postganglionic neuron
– Some travel up or down the chain and synapse in
ganglia at other levels
• These fibers link the paravertebral ganglia into a chain
• Only route by which ganglia at the cervical, sacral, and
coccygeal levels receive input
– Some pass through the chain without synapsing
and continue as splanchnic nerves
15-17
The Sympathetic
Division
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Eye
Nasal glands
Pons
Salivary glands
Preganglionic neurons
Postganglionic neurons
Carotid
plexuses
Heart
Cardiac and
pulmonary plexuses
Regions of spinal cord
Cervical
Thoracic
Lumbar
Sacral
Lung
Celiac
ganglion
Liver and
gallbladder
Superior
mesenteric
ganglion
Stomach
Spleen
Pancreas
Postganglionic fibers to
skin, blood vessels,
adipose tissue
Inferior
mesenteric
ganglion
Small intestine
Large intestine
Rectum
Sympathetic chain
ganglia
Adrenal medulla
Kidney
Figure 15.4
Ovary
Penis
Uterus
Scrotum
Bladder
15-18
The Sympathetic Chain Ganglia
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Cardiac n.
Thoracic
ganglion
Communicating
ramus
Bronchi
Superior
vena cava
Sympathetic
chain
Rib
Splanchnic n.
Heart
Phrenic n.
Vagus n.
Diaphragm
© From A Stereoscopic Atlas of Anatomy by David L. Basett. Courtesy of Dr. Robert A. Chase, MD.
Figure 15.3
15-19
The Sympathetic Division
• Nerve fibers leave the sympathetic chain by
spinal, sympathetic, and splanchnic nerves
– Spinal nerve route
• Some postganglionic fibers exit a ganglion by way
of the gray ramus
• Return to the spinal nerve and travel the rest of the
way to the target organ
• Most sweat glands, piloerector muscles, and blood
vessels of the skin and skeletal muscles
15-20
The Sympathetic Division
• Routes (cont.)
– Sympathetic nerve route
• Other nerves leave by way of sympathetic nerves that
extend to the heart, lungs, esophagus, and thoracic
blood vessels
• These nerves form carotid plexus around each carotid
artery of the neck
• Issue fibers from there to the effectors in the head
– Sweat, salivary, nasal glands; piloerector muscles;
blood vessels; dilators of iris
• Some fibers of superior and middle cervical ganglia
form cardiac nerves to the heart
15-21
The Sympathetic Division
• Routes (cont.)
– Splanchnic nerve route
• Some fibers that arise from spinal nerves T5 to
T12 pass through the sympathetic ganglia
without synapsing
– Continue on as the splanchnic nerves
– Lead to second set of ganglia: collateral
(prevertebral) ganglia and synapse there
15-22
The Sympathetic Division
• Collateral ganglia contribute to a network called
the abdominal aortic plexus
– Wraps around abdominal aorta
– Three major collateral ganglia in this plexus
• Celiac, superior mesenteric, and inferior
mesenteric
• Postganglionic fibers accompany these arteries and
their branches to their target organs
– Solar plexus: collective name for the celiac and
superior mesenteric ganglia
• Nerves radiate from ganglia like rays of the sun
15-23
The Sympathetic Division
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Diaphragm
Esophagus
Adrenal medulla
Adrenal cortex
Celiac ganglia
(b)
Adrenal gland
Celiac trunk
Renal plexus
Superior mesenteric
ganglion
First lumbar
sympathetic
ganglion
Superior mesenteric artery
Aortic plexus
Inferior mesenteric artery
Kidney
Inferior mesenteric
ganglion
Aorta
Pelvic
sympathetic
chain
Figure 15.6
15-24
(a)
The Sympathetic Division
• Neuronal divergence predominates
– Each preganglionic cell branches and synapses on 10
to 20 postganglionic cells
– One preganglionic neuron can excite multiple
postganglionic fibers leading to different target organs
– Have relatively widespread effects
15-25
The Adrenal Glands
• Paired adrenal (suprarenal) glands on superior
poles of the kidneys
• Each is two glands with different functions
– Adrenal cortex (outer layer)
• Secretes steroid hormones
– Adrenal medulla (inner core)
• Essentially a sympathetic ganglion
• Consists of modified postganglionic neurons without dendrites
or axons
• Stimulated by preganglionic sympathetic neurons that
terminate on these cells
15-26
The Adrenal Glands
– Adrenal medulla (cont.)
• Secretes a mixture of hormones into bloodstream
• Catecholamines—85% epinephrine (adrenaline) and 15%
norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
• Also function as neurotransmitters
• Sympathoadrenal system is the closely related
functioning adrenal medulla and sympathetic
nervous system
15-27
The Parasympathetic Division
• Parasympathetic division is also called the
craniosacral division
– Arises from the brain and sacral regions of the spinal
cord
– Fibers travel in certain cranial and sacral nerves
• Origin of long preganglionic neurons
– Midbrain, pons, and medulla
– Sacral spinal cord segments S2 to S4
15-28
The Parasympathetic Division
• Pathways of long preganglionic fibers
– Fibers in cranial nerves III, VII, IX, and X
– Fibers arising from sacral spinal cord
• Pelvic splanchnic nerves and inferior hypogastric
plexus
• Terminal ganglia in or near target organs
– Long preganglionic, short postganglionic fibers
• Neuronal divergence less than sympathetic
division
– One preganglionic fiber reaches the target organ
and then stimulates fewer than five postganglionic
cells
15-29
Parasympathetic Cranial Nerves
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Preganglionic neurons
Pterygopalatine
ganglion
Oculomotor n.
(CN III)
Postganglionic neurons
Ciliary ganglion
Lacrimal gland
• Oculomotor nerve (III)
– Narrows pupil and focuses lens
Eye
Facial n.
(CN VII)
Submandibular
ganglion
Submandibular
salivary gland
Otic ganglion
• Facial nerve (VII)
Parotid
salivary gland
Glossopharyngeal n.
(CN IX)
– Tear, nasal, and salivary glands
Vagus n.
(CN X)
Heart
Cardiac plexus
• Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX)
Pulmonary
plexus
Regions of
spinal cord
Cervical
Esophageal
plexus
– Parotid salivary gland
Lung
Thoracic
Lumbar
Sacral
Celiac
ganglion
Stomach
Liver and
gallbladder
Abdominal
aortic
plexus
Spleen
• Vagus nerve (X)
Pancreas
Pelvic
splanchnic
nerves
Kidney and
ureter
Transverse
colon
Inferior
Hypogastric
plexus
Descending
colon
Small intestine
Rectum
– Viscera as far as proximal half of
colon
– Cardiac, pulmonary, and
esophageal plexus
Pelvic
nerves
Penis
Ovary
Uterus
Bladder
Scrotum
Figure 15.7
15-30
The
Parasympathetic
Division
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Preganglionic neurons
Pterygopalatine
ganglion
Oculomotor n.
(CN III)
Postganglionic neurons
Ciliary ganglion
Lacrimal gland
Eye
Facial n.
(CN VII)
Submandibular
ganglion
• Remaining parasympathetic
fibers arise from levels S2 to
S4 of the spinal cord
Submandibular
salivary gland
Otic ganglion
Parotid
salivary gland
Glossopharyngeal n.
(CN IX)
Vagus n.
(CN X)
Heart
Cardiac plexus
• Form pelvic splanchnic
nerves that lead to the
inferior hypogastric plexus
Pulmonary
plexus
Regions of
spinal cord
Cervical
Esophageal
plexus
Lung
Thoracic
Lumbar
Sacral
Celiac
ganglion
Stomach
Liver and
gallbladder
Abdominal
aortic
plexus
Spleen
• Most form pelvic nerves to
their terminal ganglion on the
target organs
– Distal half of colon,
rectum, urinary bladder,
and reproductive organs
Pancreas
Pelvic
splanchnic
nerves
Kidney and
ureter
Transverse
colon
Inferior
Hypogastric
plexus
Descending
colon
Small intestine
Rectum
Pelvic
nerves
Figure 15.7
Penis
Ovary
Uterus
Bladder
Scrotum
15-31
The Enteric Nervous System
• Enteric nervous system—the nervous system of the
digestive tract
– Does not arise from the brainstem or spinal cord
– Does innervate smooth muscle and glands
• Composed of 100 million neurons found in the walls of the
digestive tract
• No components in CNS
• Has its own reflex arcs
• Regulates motility of esophagus, stomach, and intestines
and secretion of digestive enzymes and acid
• Normal digestive function also requires regulation by
sympathetic and parasympathetic systems
15-32
Megacolon
• Hirschsprung disease—hereditary defect
causing absence of enteric nervous system
– No innervation in sigmoid colon and rectum
– Constricts permanently and will not allow passage of
feces
– Feces becomes impacted above constriction
– Megacolon: massive dilation of bowel accompanied
by abdominal distension and chronic constipation
– May be colonic gangrene, perforation of bowel, and
peritonitis
– Usually evident in newborns who fail to have their first
bowel movement
15-33
Autonomic Effects on Target Organs
• Expected Learning Outcomes
– Name the neurotransmitters employed at different
synapses of the ANS.
– Name the receptors for these neurotransmitters and
explain how they relate to autonomic effects.
– Explain how the ANS controls many target organs
through dual innervation.
– Explain how control is exerted in the absence of dual
innervation.
15-34
Neurotransmitters and Their Receptors
• How can different autonomic neurons have different effects—
constricting some vessels but dilating others?
– Effects determined by types of neurotransmitters released and
types of receptors found on target cells
• Two fundamental reasons
– Sympathetic and parasympathetic fibers secrete different
neurotransmitters
– Target cells respond to the same neurotransmitter differently
depending upon the type of receptor they have for it
• All autonomic fibers secrete either acetylcholine or norepinephrine
• There are two classes of receptors for each of these
neurotransmitters
15-35
Neurotransmitters and Their Receptors
• Acetylcholine (ACh) is secreted by all
preganglionic neurons in both divisions and the
postganglionic parasympathetic neurons
– Called cholinergic fibers
– Any receptor that binds it is called cholinergic
receptor
15-36
Neurotransmitters and Their Receptors
• Two types of cholinergic receptors
– Muscarinic receptors
• All cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and gland cells have
muscarinic receptors
• Excitatory or inhibitory due to subclasses of muscarinic
receptors
– Nicotinic receptors
• On all ANS postganglionic neurons, in the adrenal medulla, and
at neuromuscular junctions of skeletal muscle
• Excitatory when ACh binding occurs
15-37
Neurotransmitters and Their Receptors
• NE is secreted by nearly all sympathetic
postganglionic neurons
– Called adrenergic fibers
– Receptors for it called adrenergic receptors
• Alpha-adrenergic receptors
– Usually excitatory
– Two subclasses use different second messengers (α1 and
α 2)
• Beta-adrenergic receptors
– Usually inhibitory
– Two subclasses with different effects, but both act through
cAMP as a second messenger (β1 and β2)
15-38
Neurotransmitters and Their Receptors
• Autonomic effects on glandular secretion are often
an indirect result of their effect on blood vessels
– Vasodilation: increased blood flow; increased secretion
– Vasoconstriction: decreased blood flow; decreased
secretion
• Sympathetic effects tend to last longer than
parasympathetic effects
– ACh released by parasympathetics is broken down
quickly at synapse
– NE by sympathetics is reabsorbed by nerve, diffuses to
adjacent tissues, and much passes into bloodstream
15-39
Neurotransmitters and Their Receptors
• Many substances released as neurotransmitters that
modulate ACh and NE function
– Sympathetic fibers also secrete enkephalin,
substance P, neuropeptide Y, somatostatin,
neurotensin, or gonadotropin-releasing hormone
– Parasympathetic fibers stimulate endothelial cells
to release the gas, nitric oxide, which causes
vasodilation by inhibiting smooth muscle tone
• Function is crucial to penile erection—means of
action of Viagra
15-40
Neurotransmitters and Their Receptors
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(a) Parasympathetic fiber
Nicotinic
receptor
ACh
Target
cell
ACh
Preganglionic
neuron
Postganglionic
neuron
Muscarinic
receptor
(b) Sympathetic adrenergic fiber
Nicotinic
receptor
ACh
Target
cell
Preganglionic
neuron
Postganglionic
neuron
NE
Adrenergic receptor
(c) Sympathetic cholinergic fiber
Nicotinic
receptor
ACh
Target
cell
Preganglionic
neuron
Postganglionic
neuron
ACh
Muscarinic receptor
Figure 15.8
15-41
Dual Innervation
• Dual innervation—most viscera receive nerve
fibers from both parasympathetic and
sympathetic divisions
– Antagonistic effect: oppose each other
– Cooperative effects: two divisions act on different
effectors to produce a unified overall effect
• Both divisions do not normally innervate an organ
equally
• Digestion, heart rate
15-42
Dual Innervation
• Antagonistic effects—oppose each other
– Exerted through dual innervation of same effector cells
• Heart rate decreases (parasympathetic)
• Heart rate increases (sympathetic)
– Exerted because each division innervates different cells
• Pupillary dilator muscle (sympathetic) dilates pupil
• Constrictor pupillae (parasympathetic) constricts pupil
15-43
Dual Innervation
• Cooperative effects—when two divisions act
on different effectors to produce a unified
effect
– Parasympathetics increase salivary serous cell
secretion
– Sympathetics increase salivary mucous cell
secretion
15-44
Dual Innervation of the Iris
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Brain
Parasympathetic fibers
of oculomotor nerve (III)
Sympathetic
fibers
Superior
cervical
ganglion
Ciliary
ganglion
Spinal cord
Cholinergic stimulation
of pupillary constrictor
Iris
Pupil
Adrenergic
stimulation of
pupillary dilator
Sympathetic
(adrenergic) effect
Parasympathetic
(cholinergic) effect
Figure 15.9
15-45
Pupil dilated
Pupil constricted
Control Without Dual Innervation
• Some effectors receive only sympathetic
fibers
– Adrenal medulla, arrector pili muscles, sweat glands,
and many blood vessels
• Examples: regulation of blood pressure and
routes of blood flow
15-46
Control Without Dual Innervation
• Sympathetic vasomotor tone—a baseline firing
frequency of sympathetics
–
–
–
–
Keeps vessels in state of partial constriction
Increase in firing frequency—vasoconstriction
Decrease in firing frequency—vasodilation
Can shift blood flow from one organ to another as
needed
• Sympathetic division acting alone can exert opposite
effects on the target organ through control of blood
vessels
– During stress
• Blood vessels to muscles and heart dilate
• Blood vessels to skin constrict
15-47
Control Without Dual Innervation
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• Sympathetic division
prioritizes blood vessels
to skeletal muscles and
heart in times of
emergency
Artery
1
Sympathetic
nerve fiber
1 Strong
sympathetic
tone
2
2 Smooth muscle
contraction
3
Vasomotor
tone
3 Vasoconstriction
(a) Vasoconstriction
• Blood vessels to skin
vasoconstrict to
minimize bleeding if
injury occurs during
stress or exercise
1
1 Weaker
sympathetic
tone
2
3
2 Smooth muscle
relaxation
3 Vasodilation
(b) Vasodilation
Figure 15.10
15-48
Central Control of Autonomic
Function
• Expected Learning Outcome
– Describe how the autonomic nervous system is
influenced by the central nervous system.
15-49
Central Control of Autonomic
Function
• ANS regulated by several levels of CNS
– Cerebral cortex has an influence: anger, fear, anxiety
• Powerful emotions influence the ANS because of the
connections between our limbic system and the
hypothalamus
– Hypothalamus: major visceral motor control center
• Nuclei for primitive functions—hunger, thirst, sex
15-50
Central Control of Autonomic
Function
• ANS regulated by several levels of CNS (cont.)
– Midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata contain:
• Nuclei for cardiac and vasomotor control, salivation,
swallowing, sweating, bladder control, and pupillary changes
– Spinal cord reflexes
• Defecation and micturition reflexes are integrated in spinal
cord
• We control these functions because of our control over
skeletal muscle sphincters; if the spinal cord is damaged,
the smooth muscle of bowel and bladder is controlled by
autonomic reflexes built into the spinal cord
15-51
Drugs and the Nervous System
• Neuropharmacology—study of effects of drugs on
the nervous system
• Sympathomimetics enhance sympathetic activity
– Stimulate receptors or increase norepinephrine
release
• Cold medicines that dilate the bronchioles or constrict
nasal blood vessels
• Sympatholytics suppress sympathetic activity
– Block receptors or inhibit norepinephrine release
• Beta blockers reduce high BP interfering with effects of
epinephrine/norepinephrine on heart and blood vessels
15-52
Drugs and the Nervous System
• Parasympathomimetics enhance activity while
parasympatholytics suppress activity
• Many drugs also act on neurotransmitters in CNS
– Prozac blocks reuptake of serotonin to prolong its
mood-elevating effect
• Caffeine competes with adenosine (the presence
of which causes sleepiness) by binding to its
receptors
15-53
Drugs and the Nervous System
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
NH2
N
N
O
H3C
N
N
N
CH3
N
OH O
O
N
N
CH3
OH
OH
Adenosine
Figure 15.11
Caffeine
15-54