Download Memory - Winston Knoll Collegiate

• You are now going to take a memory test.
• At theIn
start
of the test youyou
will bewill
shown
Psychology
pictures of a group of objects.
learn strategies to
• Try to memorize them.
improve
your
memory
• You will have 20 seconds
• When the objects disappear write down all
the objects you can remember.
• Who has the best memory?………..
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Memory
•So what is Memory?
•Memory is the process of storing
and retrieving information about
the past.
•What would life be like without
our memories?....
•How would we ……
•Make a cup of tea?
•Find our way home?
•Know who are friends or enemies
were?
•Is there anything that we don’t
need our memories for?
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Types of Memory
*
*
*
*
*
Requires conscious thought
*
Procedural Memory (skills)
*
Does not require conscious thought
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Implicit and Explicit Memory
• Implicit memory is memory for things not
intentionally remembered (without conscious
thought) e.g. If you remembered the bee in the
last slide – did you intend to?
• Explicit memory is when you intend to
remember something (which requires
conscious thought) e.g. you revise so that you
can remember information in the exam.
• We may remember through implicit memory far
more than we are consciously aware.
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Procedural (Skills) Memory
• Procedural – skills; actions that do not require
conscious thought (riding a bicycle?) you don’t
have to think about how you pedal or balance.
• Procedural memory is much more resistant to
forgetting.
• Procedural includes implicit memory (that
means you may remember something without
intentionally learning it or intentionally
remembering it e.g. you don’t try to learn to
text without looking at your fingers: you learn
by practice.)
Give some examples of skills that you may have
learned via procedural memory……
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Declarative Memory:Semantic and Episodic Memory
• Declarative things you can declare:–
facts, faces, names, events (what did you
have for breakfast this morning?)
• There are two kinds of Declarative
memory:
• Episodic Memory= memories of personal
experiences or events (e.g. Christmas,
birthdays, what I had for breakfast)
• Semantic Memory= learned memories;
knowledge not linked to time or events
(e.g. what is good for me to have at
breakfast, capital city of France)
• Give some of your own examples of
Episodic and Semantic Memory…
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The Three Processes of Memory
(what has to happen in order for a memory to be formed and remembered)
Copy processes and underlined part onto your handout.
Encoding
Taking information / stimulus from
environment and programming it into
our brains. Stimulus is usually visual
(iconic) , but it can be sound
(acoustic) and smells etc. It can then
be programmed or ‘encoded’ into our
brains as iconic, acoustic or semantic
encoding
Retrieval
Recalling by using
‘cues’ to
remember items
you have stored.
People may do
this differently.
Storage
Storing information until it is required at a
later time. The length of time the information
is stored is the store’s DURATION and how
much information can be stored is its
CAPACITY
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2
Activity
Who has the best attention?
Watch the video clip carefully and count the
number of times the white team catches the ball.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A
hg6qcgoay4
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Multi-Store Memory Model
By Atkinson & Shiffrin
.
Environment
Rehearsal
Coding
Coding
Sensory
Stimuli
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Coding
If not attended to
information is lost
Long
Term
Memory
Short
Term
Memory
Loss via displacement
or decay if not
rehearsed
Retrieval
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DETAIL: Sensory Memory Store:
• Temporary storage of information stimulus taken
in….
• Visual encoding (iconic)
• Auditory encoding (acoustic)
• Probably others as well (smell – chemical)
– Capacity: Very large
– Duration: Very short
• about 250 ms. for iconic (visual)
• 1-2 sec. for acoustic (sound)
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Detail: Short Term Memory (STM)
• Capacity: Small: 7 plus or minus 2 units or
‘chunks’ (Miller, 1956)
Chunk: a meaningful unit
Examples:
• A group of letters (FBI)
• A group of 7 numbers(8346179) are chunked into
two groups for even easier recall 941-0657
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Displacement in STM
STM
7 slots
( For 7 units
or ‘chunks
of
information)
Cheese
Milk
Flour
Apples
Syrup
Peas
Eggs
Bread
Bread
Milk
Flour
Apples
Syrup
Peas
Eggs
Bread
Milk
Flour
Apples
Syrup
Peas
Bread
Milk
Flour
Apples
Syrup
Bread
Milk
Flour
Apples
Bread
Milk
Flour
Bread
Milk
Lost
from
STM
Bread
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This experiment shows that the duration of the STM is around 18 seconds.
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Primacy-Recency effect
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Primacy Effect
• First items in a list are
remembered better than items
in the middle
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Recency Effect
• The last items in a list are
remembered better than items in the
middle, if tested immediately
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TIME
PEAK
SLOW
PENS
LONG
AGES
THAN
VAST
HEAT
RAIN
MORE
SOME
TUNE
RARE
WITH
BEAR
THIS
TIES
HEAR
LIFE
Evidence for the PrimacyRecency Effect
Remember the following words:
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TIME
PEAK
SLOW
PENS
LONG
AGES
THAN
VAST
HEAT
RAIN
MORE
SOME
TUNE
RARE
WITH
BEAR
THIS
TIES
HEAR
LIFE
73
71
45
71
67
62
45
34
46
48
34
45
41
48
42
67
53
34
45
78
Count how many you recalled:
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Detail: Long Term Memory (LTM)
• Capacity: Potentially Infinite
• Duration: A lifetime (decades)
• Encoding: Organized by meaning (semantic)
• Procedural Memory: habits and motor skills, conditioned
or practiced
• Declarative Memory: Memory for semantic knowledge
(facts) and personal experiences (episodic)
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Summary of Multi Store Memory Model Components
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The multi store memory model suggests
that forgetting happens because of:
• Trace Decay: Memory fades with
time if not used– temporary if not
rehearsed – otherwise it becomes
permanent
Peterson and Peterson (1959) (STM & LTM)
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Displacement: Information in
STM is pushed out by newer
information. 7+/- 2 !
(STM ONLY)
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Interference: Memories are
disrupted or obscured by other
incoming information. Confusion
or entanglement of similar
memories (STM & LTM)
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Retrieval Failure:
Information/memories in LTM
store cannot be accessed
because suitable retrieval cues
are not available. (LTM ONLY)
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Diversion of attention: mainly
in SM but also affects STM
Watkins et al. (1973)
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Memory in Everyday Life
• In this section we will look at factors affecting memory recall
(remembering and forgetting) in particular in connection with
Eyewitness testimony and Memory improvement methods
• When things are forgotten or not remembered it is because:
– The memory Is not available (it has ceased to exist)
– The memory Is just not accessible (though we might find it given
time or the right cues)
• Forgetting is fastest right after initial learning
• But slower for more meaningful material
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Cue dependent retrieval failure is when information may be
available to recall but is temporarily inaccessible.
Evidence – Tip of the tongue phenomenon (Brown & McNeill
1966) The feeling of being on the verge of recalling
something, often you can say what letter it starts with, or
how many syllables it has.
This means that there are Cues that can aid
retrieval e.g.
• CATEGORY :- We remember things better when we sort
information in to different categories (Tulving & Pearlson
1966)
• CONTEXT :- (Godden & Baddeley 1975) found external
environmental cues present at the time of learning
affected our ability to recall information.
• STATE :- Internal bodily cues that were experienced at the KARMA
time of learning may affect our ability to recall information. SUTRA
(Goodwin 1969) Investigated the effects of alcohol.
• Stress and Anxiety can also cause retrieval
failure. (as stress is a bodily state!)
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Context dependent memory
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Godden & Baddeley 1975
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Performance
Stress and Memory
Low
Moderate
High
Stress
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ANXIETY…..THE EFFECT OF
EMOTION ON MEMORY
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Emotional states:
Can emotion make us forget? (Repression)
Freud said that we repress memories (our ego’s bury them in
our unconscious mind), usually to avoid dealing with
traumatic experiences; this is referred to as motivated
forgetting. This is a protective ego defence mechanism.
•
•
•
•
•
•
EVIDENCE
Levinger and Clarke found that emotionally charged words
were remembered less well than emotionally negative
words. (did we find this?)
Memories of Child Sex Abuse are occasionally only
recovered by psychoanalysis or hypnotherapy.
Shell Shock – Soldiers loose their memories of war horrors.
Witnesses of violent crimes often remember less detail
than would be expected.
Major disasters such as 9/11 are less well remembered by
the people directly involved, but remembered well by
others watching on TV or reading in the news.
Loftus & Burns showed participants two videos of a bank
robbery – one video was extremely violent the other was
not. Participants remembered much more from the nonviolent video. (can you think of another reason for this?)
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EVALUATION of REPRESSION
(is this the whole story?)
• Uncomfortable / horrific memories may just
not be thought of so much – so are
rehearsed less often than normal
memories…. So a weaker engram is laid
down, which makes the memory trace more
likely to fade away. OR
• It could be caused by high levels of stress!
• Loftus later theorised that the violent video
was less well remembered because the
participants focused on the weapon used
rather than the trivial details of the situation,
and that this weapon focus (which diverts
attention from other details) is why less 33was
remembered in the violent video.
Flashbulb memories Can emotion help us remember better?
• Brown & Kulik (1977) Coined the phrase Flashbulb memory. It
is a type of Episodic Memory that is especially vivid or detailed
and relates usually to some major public event (Twin Towers,
Princess Diana’s Death).They theorised that an emotional event
triggered a neural mechanism in the brain and that the scene was
printed on the memory (a strong engram was laid down instantly).
•
•
•
•
•
•
EVIDENCE
Brown & Kulik questioned participants about famous
people’s assassinations – J. F. Kennedy, Martin Luther King.
They found that certain things were almost universally
remembered about them, these were:Where you were, What you were doing, Who gave you the
news
What you felt, What others felt, What happened immediately
afterwards.
Do you have similar memories of Twin Towers 9/11
Further evidence showed that the more personally significant
the event the more likely you were to develop a flashbulb
memory for it. (75% of black people questioned had a
flashbulb memory to Martin Luther King’s death whereas only
33% of white people did!)
Can you think of other reasons why things like these are
remembered so vividly?
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EVALUATION
• It could be that the vivid memories
are simply due to over rehearsal –
frequent repetition of event on news /
everyone talking about it etc. (so
really strong engrams are laid down)
• But other research supports Brown
and Kulik . Christianson and
Hubinette found that emotional
involvement does increase the
accuracy of memory. When
interviewing 110 people who
witnessed a bank robbery they found
those who had been personally
threatened had better memory of the
event. This goes against Freud’s
theory of repression.
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Memory Recall The Time Factor
• The longer we watch the
more likely we are to
remember details (more time
for rehearsal and
elaboration).
• The longer the interval
between an event and the
recall the worse the recall.
(Trace decay theory) If the
memory is not revisited
shortly after the event and
often then the memory trace
will fade away, however.....
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Research shows that witnesses
beliefs about their own testimony
changes over time but their level of
accuracy doesn’t! :
Confidence
Accuracy
Time
Explain this using memory theories you have learned
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Other factors influencing the accuracy of
Eyewitness testimony: Research shows...
• FACES:- Faces are recalled from top down – hair,
forehead, are the first things we recall about someone.
So people with heads covered or wearing glasses are
less well remembered when those items are removed.
• CLOTHING:- People tend to focus attention on clothing
rather than height or other features
• CONTEXT / STATE / FAMILIARITYSTEREOTYPES have
an effect on what we expect, and therefore what we
remember.
• LEADING QUESTIONS:- (LOFTUS 1975) (MISSLED
MEMORY) If people are asked questions that lead them
in a certain direction they will usually go there.
• RACE:- People remember their own race better.
• WEAPON FOCUS:- (Loftus) People focus on the
weapon / violence rather than the person who is
perpetuating it.
• SOCIAL INFLUENCE:- People can be influenced by
what the other witnesses say.
• STRESS/ High emotion:– Repressed memories. Loftus:- People who saw the
more violent video remembered less.
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•10
Improving Memory
Strategies for Improving memory
Cues
Mnemonics & mind maps
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Using cues
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Cues: Organization Experiment
•Pear
•beagle,
•Clarinet
•Hail
•Rain
•Drinks
•Rose
•Squash
•Hand
•Boxer
•Iron
•Coke
•Gold
•Harp
•Piano
•Metal
•Apple
•Body
•Fruit
•Daffodil
•Plum
•Nose
•Weather
•Copper
•Labrador
•Water
•Flowers
•Brass
•Foot
•Tulips
•Pansy
•Dogs
•Sleet
•Milk
•Orange
•Toe
•Snow
•Flute
•Dogs
•Labrador
•Beagle
•Boxer
•Spaniel
•Fruit
•Apple
•Pear
•Plum
•Orange
•Weather
•Snow
•Rain
•Sleet
•Hail
•Flowers
•Daffodil
•Rose
•Pansy
•Instrument
•Harp
•Piano
•Flute
•Clarinet
•Drinks
•Water
•Milk
•Squash
•Coke
•Body
•Nose
•Foot
•Toe
•Hand
•Metal
•Brass
•Gold
•Copper
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List the words you can recall in
your booklet now
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How did you do?
•Pear
•beagle,
•Clarinet
•Hail
•Rain
•Drinks
•Rose
•Squash
•Hand
•Boxer
•Iron
•Coke
•Gold
•Harp
•Piano
•Metal
•Apple
•Body
•Fruit
•Daffodil
•Plum
•Nose
•Weather
•Copper
•Labrador
•Water
•Flowers
•Brass
•Foot
•Tulips
•Pansy
•Dogs
•Sleet
•Milk
•Orange
•Toe
•Snow
•Flute
•Dogs
•Labrador
•Beagle
•Boxer
•Spaniel
•Fruit
•Apple
•Pear
•Plum
•Orange
•Weather
•Snow
•Rain
•Sleet
•Hail
•Flowers
•Daffodil
•Rose
•Pansy
•Instrument
•Harp
•Piano
•Flute
•Clarinet
•Drinks
•Water
•Milk
•Squash
•Coke
•Body
•Nose
•Foot
•Toe
•Hand
•Metal
•Brass
•Gold
•Copper
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Mnemonics
Strategies that can increase memory, especially
for material that is not easily organized;
Mnemonics can be…. tricks, games, or rhymes
that help you remember something.
By this we can impose an artificial structure on
items that would otherwise be hard to remember
There are different types of Mnemonic techniques
that may suit different materials or learning
styles. E.g. visual or verbal
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Verbal Mnemonics
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Verbal Mnemonics
Rhymes E.g
• i before e except after c
• 30 days hath September …..
In 1492, Columbus sailed the
ocean blue….
•Also good when remembering
• the order of something
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Visual Imagery Mnemonics
• Method of Loci –Involves
•Good for
visual
learners!
pairing each thing to be
remembered with one of an
organized set of familiar
locations
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Visual Imagery Mnemonics
• Peg-word system - Connecting
each thing to be remembered in an
interactive image with each item on a
standard list using visualization: e.g.
•
•
•
•
One-bun
Two-shoe
Three – tree ….
Good for shopping lists or lists of
any sort....
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Visual Imagery Mnemonics
•Mind maps
•An example of elaborative
rehearsal
A mind
map on
how to
do a
mind
map!
•Giving each page of revision notes an51
unique, distinctive visual appearance
Improving Memory:
other methods
• Recall Practice: Practicing recalling
material rather than just rereading it;
especially useful for college material
• Spaced Practice: Shorter practice sessions
spaced widely apart; more effective than
massed practice
• Over-learning: Practicing material well
beyond the point needed to recall it for the
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moment
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Now try a strategy yourself!!
Use two or more of the techniques
you have learned today to help
you to remember as much as you
can about Memory Improvement
Techniques to help you study for
your upcoming test. You will need
to discuss the strategies you used
to study.
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That’s all folks!
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