Download D.1.1.1 Use relative pronouns (eg, who, whose

PSSA 4TH GRADE
WRITING ELIGIBLE
CONTENT
These are the grammar and style rules that 4th grade students are expected
to know
CC.1.4.4
Conventions of
Language
(Grammar)
1
Table of Contents
D.1.1.1 Use relative pronouns (e.g., who, whose, whom, which, that) and relative adverbs (e.g., where,
when, why) ................................................................................................................................... 2
D.1.1.2 Form and use the progressive verb tenses (e.g., I was walking, I am walking, I will be walking) 3
D.1.1.3 Use modal auxiliaries (e.g., can, may, must) to convey various conditions……………………...5
D.1.1.4 Order adjectives within sentences according to conventional patterns (e.g., a small red bag rather
than a red small bag) ..................................................................................................................... 9
D.1.1.5 Form and use prepositional phrases ............................................................................................. 11
D.1.1.6 Produce complete sentences, recognizing and correcting inappropriate fragments and run-on
sentences ..................................................................................................................................... 13
D.1.1.7 Correctly use frequently confused words (e.g., to, too, two; there, their, they’re)....................... 15
D.1.1.8 Ensure subject-verb and pronoun-antecedent agreement ............................................................. 20
D.1.2.1 Use correct capitalization ............................................................................................................. 24
D.1.2.2 Use commas and quotation marks to mark direct speech and quotations from a text .................. 27
D.1.2.3 Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction in a compound sentence .................................. 28
D.1.2.4 Spell grade-appropriate words correctly ...................................................................................... 29
D.2.1.1 Choose words and phrases to convey ideas precisely .................................................................. 30
D.2.1.2 Choose punctuation for effect ...................................................................................................... 33
D.2.1.3 Choose words and phrases for effect ........................................................................................... 35
Draft July 2014
Erie’s Public Schools, Erie, PA
Please contact Nora Dolak with feedback at [email protected]
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D.1.1.1 Use relative pronouns (e.g., who, whose, whom, which, that) and
relative adverbs (e.g., where, when, why)
A relative adverb is an adverb which introduces a relative clause. The English relative adverbs
are: where, when, whenever and wherever.
The house where I live is very small.
I will never forget the day when I met Jane.
Susie takes her cell phone wherever she goes.
I read books whenever I get time.
Relative pronoun
A relative pronoun is a pronoun which introduces a relative clause. Examples are: who,
whom, which and whose. That is also sometimes used to introduce a relative clause. The use
of a relative pronoun is usually optional in English. In informal English, it is usually omitted. In
the following examples the optional relative pronoun appears in parentheses.
The necklace (which) my mother bought for me was very expensive.
The man (who) you were talking to is my father.
In the following examples, the relative pronouns who and whose are obligatory and cannot be
omitted.
The woman who was sitting next to me is my aunt. (NOT The woman was sitting next to
me is my aunt.)
The boy whose sister works with me is a good singer. (NOT The boy sister works with
me is a good singer.)
Notes
A relative clause is a kind of subordinate clause which is attached to a noun within a noun
phrase. A relative clause can be defining or non-defining. A defining relative clause is required
to identify the noun it is attached to. In contrast, a non-defining relative clause is not required for
identification; it only provides additional information.
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D.1.1.2 Form and use the progressive verb tenses (e.g., I was walking, I am
walking, I will be walking)
English progressive verb tenses describe ongoing actions in the present, past or future. What’s
the difference between each pair of simple tense forms? Not a whole lot unless you are a
grammarian. People often interchange present and progressive forms without creating any
problems. But shades of difference in meaning do exist.
Present progressive
The present progressive form often implies a process:
Alexei is axing the proposal to cut down the national forest. (Is axing is in present
progressive form)
Michael and Lulu are skiing far too fast toward that cliff. (Are skiing is in present
progressive form)
The single-word form of the present tense may be used for things that are generally true at the
present time but not necessarily happening right now. For example:
Ollie attends wrestling matches every Sunday.
If you call Ollie on Sunday, you’ll get this annoying message he recorded on his answering
machine because he’s at the arena (attends is in present tense). You may also get this message
on a Thursday (or on another day) and it is still correct, even though on Thursdays Ollie stays
home to play chess. Now read this sentence:
Ollie is playing hide-and-seek with his dog Spot.
This sentence means that right now (is playing is in the progressive form of the present tense), as
you write or say this sentence, Ollie is running around the living room looking for Spot, who is
easy to find because he ran through that tray of fluorescent paint.
Past progressive
The difference between the plain past tense and the past progressive tense is pretty much the
same as in the present tense. The single-word form often shows what happened in the past more
generally. The progressive form may pinpoint action or a state of being at a specific time or
occurring in the past on a regular basis.
Gulliver went to the store and bought clothes for all his little friends.
This sentence means that at some point in the past Gulliver whipped out his charge card and
finished off his Christmas list (went and bought are in past tense).
While Gulliver was shopping, his friends were planning their revenge.
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This sentence means that Gulliver shouldn’t have bothered because at the exact moment he was
spending his allowance, his friends were deciding what time to pour ink into his lunchbox (was
shopping and were planning are in the progressive form of the past tense).
Gulliver was shopping until he was dropping, despite his mother’s strict credit limit.
This sentence refers to one of Gulliver’s bad habits, his tendency to go shopping every spare
moment (was shopping and was dropping are in the progressive form of the past tense). The
shopping was repeated on a daily basis, over and over again. (Hence, Gulliver’s mom imposed
the strict credit limit.)
Future progressive
You won’t find much difference between future and future progressive. The progressive gives
you slightly more of a sense of being in the middle of things. For example:
The actor will be playing Hamlet with a great deal of shouting.
The actor will play Hamlet with a great deal of shouting.
In the first example, will be playing is in the progressive form of the future tense. In the second
example, will play is in future tense.
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D.1.1.3 Use modal auxiliaries (e.g., can, may, must) to convey various
conditions
Other helping verbs, called modal auxiliaries or modals, such as can, could, may, might, must,
ought to, shall, should, will, and would, do not change form for different subjects.
Uses of Can and Could
The modal auxiliary can is used
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to express ability (in the sense of being able to do something or knowing how to do
something)
He can speak Spanish but he can't write it very well.
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to expression permission (in the sense of being allowed or permitted to do
something):
Can I talk to my friends in the library waiting room? (Note that can is less formal
than may. Also, some writers will object to the use of can in this context.)
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to express theoretical possibility:
American automobile makers can make better cars if they think there's a profit in
it.
The modal auxiliary could is used
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to express ability in the past:
I could always beat you at tennis when we were kids.
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to express past or future permission:
Could I bury my cat in your back yard?
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to express present possibility:
We could always spend the afternoon just sitting around talking.
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to express possibility or ability in contingent circumstances:
If he studied harder, he could pass this course.
In expressing ability, can and could frequently also imply willingness: Can you help me with
my homework?
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Can versus May
Whether the auxiliary verb can can be used to express permission or not — "Can I leave the
room now?" ["I don't know if you can, but you may."] — depends on the level of formality of
your text or situation. As Theodore Bernstein puts it in The Careful Writer, "a writer who is
attentive to the proprieties will preserve the traditional distinction: can for ability or power to do
something, may for permission to do it.
The question is at what level can you safely ignore the "proprieties." Merriam-Webster's
Dictionary, tenth edition, says the battle is over and can can be used in virtually any situation to
express or ask for permission. Most authorities, however, recommend a stricter adherence to the
distinction, at least in formal situations.
Authority: The Careful Writer by Theodore Bernstein. The Free Press: New York. 1998. p. 87.
Uses of May and Might
Two of the more troublesome modal auxiliaries are may and might. When used in the context of
granting or seeking permission, might is the past tense of may. Might is considerably more
tentative than may.
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May I leave class early?
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If I've finished all my work and I'm really quiet, might I leave early?
In the context of expressing possibility, may and might are interchangeable present and future
forms and might + have + past participle is the past form:

She might be my advisor next semester.
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She may be my advisor next semester.
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She might have advised me not to take biology.
Avoid confusing the sense of possibility in may with the implication of might, that a hypothetical
situation has not in fact occurred. For instance, let's say there's been a helicopter crash at the
airport. In his initial report, before all the facts are gathered, a newscaster could say that the pilot
"may have been injured." After we discover that the pilot is in fact all right, the newscaster can
now say that the pilot "might have been injured" because it is a hypothetical situation that has not
occurred. Another example: a body had been identified after much work by a detective. It was
reported that "without this painstaking work, the body may have remained unidentified." Since
the body was, in fact, identified, might is clearly called for.
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Uses of Will and Would
In certain contexts, will and would are virtually interchangeable, but there are differences.
Notice that the contracted form 'll is very frequently used for will.
Will can be used to express willingness:
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I'll wash the dishes if you dry.
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We're going to the movies. Will you join us?
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It can also express intention (especially in the first person):
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I'll do my exercises later on.
and prediction:
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specific: The meeting will be over soon.
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timeless: Humidity will ruin my hairdo.
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habitual: The river will overflow its banks every spring.
Would can also be used to express willingness:
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Would you please take off your hat?
It can also express insistence (rather rare, and with a strong stress on the word "would"):
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Now you've ruined everything. You would act that way.
and characteristic activity:
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customary: After work, he would walk to his home in West Hartford.
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typical (casual): She would cause the whole family to be late, every time.
In a main clause, would can express a hypothetical meaning:
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My cocker spaniel would weigh a ton if I let her eat what she wants.
Finally, would can express a sense of probability:

I hear a whistle. That would be the five o'clock train.
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Uses of Used to
The auxiliary verb construction used to is used to express an action that took place in the past,
perhaps customarily, but now that action no longer customarily takes place:

We used to take long vacation trips with the whole family.
The spelling of this verb is a problem for some people because the "-ed" ending quite naturally
disappears in speaking: "We yoostoo take long trips." But it ought not to disappear in writing.
There are exceptions, though. When the auxiliary is combined with another auxiliary, did, the
past tense is carried by the new auxiliary and the "-ed" ending is dropped. This will often happen
in the interrogative:
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Didn't you use to go jogging every morning before breakfast?
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It didn't use to be that way.
Used to can also be used to convey the sense of being accustomed to or familiar with something:

The tire factory down the road really stinks, but we're used to it by now.
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I like these old sneakers; I'm used to them.
Used to is best reserved for colloquial usage; it has no place in formal or academic text.
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D.1.1.4 Order adjectives within sentences according to conventional patterns
(e.g., a small red bag rather than a red small bag)
There are actual rules for ordering adjectives! Whenever you have a list of adjectives, according
to most sources, they should be put in the following order:
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Number - e.g., many, few, seventeen
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Opinion - e.g., beautiful, silly, annoying
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Size - e.g., big, small, gargantuan
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Age - e.g., old, young
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Shape - It can be shape like "round" or shape like a condition - e.g., dusty
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Color - e.g., red, blue, yellow
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Origin – e.g., countries, directions, religions, e.g., Canadian, northern, Catholic
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Material - e.g., plastic, wooden
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Purpose - e.g., sleeping as in a sleeping bag
The wheels started turning with this new knowledge, and slowly the lesson plans came together
for this topic.
For the first day, I made a PowerPoint about the order of adjectives and my students made a
foldable to record their thinking.
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On day two, we looked at some examples that I pulled from the books they were reading in their
book clubs, and I gave them the task at looking for more sentences that used multiple adjectives
together. They recorded their sentences, and we shared some of the examples as a class.
Days 3 and 4 involved some word sorts. I made some cards with adjectives on them, and they
sorted them by what type of adjective they were. Then they put some together to make
sentences.
On Friday (day 5), we took a short assessment that had students identify the correct order of
adjectives in some multiple choice questions, and then write their own sentences.
Overall, I was happy with how the unit turned out, and we all learned a lot about adjectives that
we hadn't known before. By getting the students to play with adjectives more, I also noticed
them using more interesting word choices in their writing. Win-win.
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D.1.1.5 Form and use prepositional phrases
A phrase is a group of words that forms a unit but does not contain a subject and verb. We use
many types of phrases in building sentences. This section focuses on prepositional phrases.
What is a prepositional phrase?
A prepositional phrase is a word group that begins with a preposition. A preposition is a joining
word that links a noun to another word in a sentence.
Every prepositional phrase contains at least two words: a preposition at the beginning and at
least one noun or nominal (a word or word group acting as a noun). Any modifiers or other
words connected to the noun or nominal are also part of the phrase:
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at home: (at + noun home)
between Alice and Joe: (between + nouns Alice and Joe)
for you and me: (for + pronouns you and me)
on a dusty dirt road: (on + modifiers a dusty dirt + noun road)
since coming to Canada: (since + nominal coming to Canada)
with what you have: (with + nominal what you have)
What does a prepositional phrase do in a sentence?
A prepositional phrase normally acts as an adjective or an adverb.
As an adjective, the phrase modifies a noun or a nominal and comes immediately after the word
it modifies:
We bought the house on the corner.
[on the corner modifies the noun house]
One of the baby birds has fallen out of the nest.
[of the baby birds modifies the pronoun one]
I could hear only the sighing of the wind.
[of the wind modifies the gerund sighing]
As an adverb, the phrase usually modifies a verb. The phrase may be next to the verb or at the
beginning or end of the sentence:
The letter sat on the desk all week.
[on the desk modifies the verb sat]
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The panther crept silently along the narrow ledge.
[along the narrow ledge modifies the verb crept]
With a puzzled look, Jason followed his sister.
[With a puzzled look modifies the verb followed]
An adverb prepositional phrase may also modify a verbal (i.e., a present or past participle, a
gerund or an infinitive):
Racing toward the finish line, Georg left the other runners behind.
[toward the finish line modifies the present participle racing]
The passengers seated at the back couldn’t see.
[at the back modifies the past participle seated]
I don’t mind sailing in rough weather.
[in rough weather modifies the gerund sailing]
Do you want to go to a restaurant for lunch?
[to a restaurant and for lunch modify the infinitive to go]
Some adverb prepositional phrases modify adjectives:
The children were afraid of the barking dog.
[of the barking dog modifies the adjective afraid]
Sometimes an adverb prepositional phrase may follow the linking verb be:
Samina was in the garden.
Occasionally, a prepositional phrase may act as a noun, but this type of structure is unusual in
formal writing:
After midnight is the best time to view the comet.
[After midnight acts as the subject of the verb is]
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D.1.1.6 Produce complete sentences, recognizing and correcting
inappropriate fragments and run-on sentences
Fragment sentences
A complete sentence will have at least one subject and one verb. Sentences are considered
fragments when they are missing either a subject or a verb. Consider the following two
fragment sentences and their corrected versions:
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No Subject: Went to the store to buy brownie mix.
Added Subject: My dad went to the store to buy brownie mix.
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No Verb: Brownie mix at the store expensive.
Added Verb: Brownie mix at the store was expensive.
In addition to containing a subject and verb, a complete sentence will express a complete
thought. Consider the following two sentences and their revised versions.
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Incomplete: When he went to the checkout counter to pay for the brownie mix.
Complete: When he went to the checkout counter to pay for the brownie mix, he got
distracted by a display of cake mixes.
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Incomplete: The variety of yummy cake mixes.
Complete: The variety of yummy cake mixes convinced him that he’d rather bake a
cake than brownies tonight.
Run-on sentences (Run-ons)
A run-on sentence occurs when two or more independent clauses are combined without correct
punctuation. An independent clause is a complete, simple sentence, meaning that it contains a
subject, a verb, and a complete thought. There are a few ways to correct run-on sentences.
Consider the following run-on sentence and the following options for revising it.
Run-On: The grocery store was really packed with people there must have been a big sale today.

Correction 1: The grocery store was really packed with people. There must have
been a big sale today.
Here, the error has been corrected by simply breaking the run-on sentence into two sentences.

Correction 2: The grocery store was really packed with people, so there must have
been a big sale today.
In this case, the sentence has been corrected by adding a coordinating conjunction and a comma.
This is a compound sentence.
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Correction 3: Because the grocery store was really packed with people, there must
have been a big sale.
In this example, the sentence has been corrected by adding a subordinating conjunction and a
comma. This is a complex sentence
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D.1.1.7 Correctly use frequently confused words (e.g., to, too, two; there,
their, they’re)
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ACCEPT-to receive
ex: He accepts defeat well.
EXCEPT-to take or leave out
ex: Please take all the books off the shelf except for the red one.
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AFFECT-to influence
ex: Lack of sleep affects the quality of your work.
EFFECT-n., result, v., to accomplish
ex: The subtle effect of the lighting made the room look ominous.
ex: Can the university effect such a change without disrupting classes?
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A LOT (two words)-many.
ALOT (one word)-Not the correct form.
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ALLUSION-an indirect reference
ex: The professor made an allusion to Virginia Woolf's work.
ILLUSION-a false perception of reality
ex: They saw a mirage: that is a type of illusion one sees in the desert.
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ALL READY-prepared
ex: Dinner was all ready when the guests arrived.
ALREADY-by this time
ex: The turkey was already burned when the guests arrived.
ALTOGETHER-entirely
ex: Altogether, I thought that the student's presentation was well planned.
ALL TOGETHER-gathered, with everything in one place
ex: We were all together at the family reunion last spring.
APART-to be separated
ex: The chain-link fence kept the angry dogs apart. OR My old car fell apart
before we reached California.
A PART-to be joined with
ex: The new course was a part of the new field of study at the university. OR A
part of this plan involves getting started at dawn.
ASCENT- climb
ex: The plane's ascent made my ears pop.
ASSENT-agreement
ex: The martian assented to undergo experiments.
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BREATH-noun, air inhaled or exhaled
ex: You could see his breath in the cold air.
BREATHE-verb, to inhale or exhale
ex: If you don't breathe, then you are dead.
CAPITAL-seat of government. Also financial resources.
ex: The capital of Virginia is Richmond.
ex: The firm had enough capital to build the new plant.
CAPITOL-the actual building in which the legislative body meets
ex: The governor announced his resignation in a speech given at the capitol
today.
CITE-to quote or document
ex: I cited ten quotes from the same author in my paper.
SIGHT-vision
ex: The sight of the American flag arouses different emotions in different parts of
the world.
SITE-position or place
ex: The new office building was built on the site of a cemetery.
COMPLEMENT-noun, something that completes; verb, to complete
ex: A nice dry white wine complements a seafood entree.
COMPLIMENT-noun, praise; verb, to praise
ex: The professor complimented Betty on her proper use of a comma.
CONSCIENCE-sense of right and wrong
ex: The student's conscience kept him from cheating on the exam.
CONSCIOUS-awake
ex: I was conscious when the burglar entered the house.
COUNCIL-a group that consults or advises
ex: The men and women on the council voted in favor of an outdoor concert in
their town.
COUNSEL-to advise
ex: The parole officer counseled the convict before he was released.
ELICIT-to draw or bring out
ex: The teacher elicited the correct response from the student.
ILLICIT-illegal
ex: The Columbian drug lord was arrested for his illicit activities.
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EMINENT-famous, respected
ex: The eminent podiatrist won the Physician of the Year award.
IMMANENT-inherent or intrinsic
ex: The meaning of the poem was immanent, and not easily recognized.
IMMINENT-ready to take place
ex: A fight between my sister and me is imminent from the moment I enter my
house.
ITS-of or belonging to it
ex: The baby will scream as soon as its mother walks out of the room.
IT'S-contraction for it is
ex: It's a beautiful day in the neighborhood.
LEAD-noun, a type of metal
ex: Is that pipe made of lead?
LED-verb, past tense of the verb "to lead"
ex: She led the campers on an over-night hike.
LIE-to lie down (a person or animal. hint: people can tell lies)
ex: I have a headache, so I'm going to lie down for a while.
(also lying, lay, has/have lain--The dog has lain in the shade all day; yesterday,
the dog lay there for twelve hours).
LAY-to lay an object down.
ex: "Lay down that shotgun, Pappy!" The sheriff demanded of the crazed
moonshiner.
ex: The town lay at the foot of the mountain.
(also laying, laid, has/have laid--At that point, Pappy laid the shotgun on the
ground).
LOSE--verb, to misplace or not win
ex: Mom glared at Mikey. "If you lose that new lunchbox, don't even think of
coming home!"
LOOSE--adjective, to not be tight; verb (rarely used)--to release
ex: The burglar's pants were so loose that he was sure to lose the race with the
cop chasing him.
ex: While awaiting trial, he was never set loose from jail because no one would
post his bail.
NOVEL-noun, a book that is a work of fiction. Do not use "novel" for nonfiction; use
"book" or "work."
ex: Mark Twain wrote his novel Adventures of Huckleberry Finn when he was
already well known, but before he published many other works of fiction and
nonfiction.
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PASSED-verb, past tense of "to pass," to have moved
ex: The tornado passed through the city quickly, but it caused great damage.
PAST-belonging to a former time or place
ex: Who was the past president of Microsquish Computers?
ex: Go past the fire station and turn right.
PRECEDE-to come before
ex: Pre-writing precedes the rough draft of good papers.
PROCEED-to go forward
ex: He proceeded to pass back the failing grades on the exam.
PRINCIPAL-adjective, most important; noun, a person who has authority
ex: The principal ingredient in chocolate chip cookies is chocolate chips.
ex: The principal of the school does the announcements each morning.
PRINCIPLE-a general or fundamental truth
ex: The study was based on the principle of gravity.
QUOTE-verb, to cite
ex: I would like to quote Dickens in my next paper.
QUOTATION-noun, the act of citing
ex: The book of famous quotations inspired us all.
RELUCTANT-to hesitate or feel unwilling
ex: We became reluctant to drive further and eventually turned back when the
road became icy.
RETICENT-to be reluctant to speak; to be reserved in manner. Note that The American
Heritage Dictionary lists "reluctant" as a synonym for "reticent," as the third definition.
For nuance and variety, we recommend "reticent" for reluctance when speaking or
showing emotion (after all, even extroverts can become reluctant).
ex: They called him reticent, because he rarely spoke. But he listened carefully
and only spoke when he had something important to say.
STATIONARY-standing still
ex: The accident was my fault because I ran into a stationary object.
STATIONERY-writing paper
ex: My mother bought me stationery that was on recycled paper.
SUPPOSED TO-correct form for "to be obligated to" or "presumed to" NOT "suppose
to"
SUPPOSE-to guess or make a conjecture
ex: Do you suppose we will get to the airport on time? When is our plane
supposed to arrive? We are supposed to check our bags before we board, but I
suppose we could do that at the curb and save time.
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THAN-use with comparisons
ex: I would rather go out to eat than eat at the dining hall.
THEN-at that time, or next
ex: I studied for my exam for seven hours, and then I went to bed.
THEIR-possessive form of they
ex: Their house is at the end of the block.
THERE-indicates location (hint: think of "here and there")
ex: There goes my chance of winning the lottery!
THEY'RE-contraction for "they are"
ex: They're in Europe for the summer--again!
THROUGH-by means of; finished; into or out of
ex: He plowed right through the other team's defensive line.
THREW-past tense of throw
ex: She threw away his love letters.
THOROUGH-careful or complete
ex: John thoroughly cleaned his room; there was not even a speck of dust when
he finished.
THOUGH-however; nevertheless
ex: He's really a sweetheart though he looks tough on the outside.
THRU-abbreviated slang for through; not appropriate in standard writing
ex: We're thru for the day!
TO-toward
ex: I went to the University of Richmond.
TOO-also, or excessively
ex: He drank too many screwdrivers and was unable to drive home.
TWO-a number
ex: Only two students did not turn in the assignment.
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WHO-pronoun, referring to a person or persons
ex: Jane wondered how Jack, who is so smart, could be having difficulties in
Calculus.
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WHICH-pronoun, replacing a singular or plural thing(s);not used to refer to persons
ex: Which section of history did you get into?
THAT-used to refer to things or a group or class of people
ex: I lost the book that I bought last week.
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

WHO-used as a subject or as a subject complement (see above)
ex: John is the man who can get the job done.
WHOM-used as an object
ex: Whom did Sarah choose as her replacement?
20
D.1.1.8 Ensure subject-verb and pronoun-antecedent agreement
Subject-verb agreement
1.
When the subject of a sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns connected
by and, use a plural verb.
She and her friends are at the fair.
2.
When two or more singular nouns or pronouns are connected by or or nor, use a singular
verb.
The book or the pen is in the drawer.
3.
When a compound subject contains both a singular and a plural noun or pronoun joined by
or or nor, the verb should agree with the part of the subject that is nearer the verb.
The boy or his friends run every day.
His friends or the boy runs every day.
4.
Doesn't is a contraction of does not and should be used only with a singular subject. Don't
is a contraction of do not and should be used only with a plural subject. The exception to
this rule appears in the case of the first person and second person pronouns I and you. With
these pronouns, the contraction don't should be used.
He doesn't like it.
They don't like it.
5.
Do not be misled by a phrase that comes between the subject and the verb. The verb agrees
with the subject, not with a noun or pronoun in the phrase.
One of the boxes is open
The people who listen to that music are few.
The team captain, as well as his players, is anxious.
The book, including all the chapters in the first section, is boring.
The woman with all the dogs walks down my street.
6.
The words each, each one, either, neither, everyone, everybody, anybody, anyone, nobody,
somebody, someone, and no one are singular and require a singular verb.
Each of these hot dogs is juicy.
Everybody knows Mr. Jones.
Either is correct.
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7.
Nouns such as civics, mathematics, dollars, measles, and news require singular verbs.
The news is on at six.
Note: the word dollars is a special case. When talking about an amount of
money, it requires a singular verb, but when referring to the dollars themselves, a
plural verb is required.
Five dollars is a lot of money.
Dollars are often used instead of rubles in Russia.
8.
Nouns such as scissors, tweezers, trousers, and shears require plural verbs. (There are two
parts to these things.)
These scissors are dull.
Those trousers are made of wool.
9.
In sentences beginning with there is or there are, the subject follows the verb. Since there
is not the subject, the verb agrees with what follows.
There are many questions.
There is a question.
10.
Collective nouns are words that imply more than one person but that are considered
singular and take a singular verb, such as group, team, committee, class, and family.
The team runs during practice.
The committee decides how to proceed.
The family has a long history.
My family has never been able to agree.
The crew is preparing to dock the ship.
This sentence is referring to the individual efforts of each crew member. The Gregg
Reference Manual provides excellent explanations of subject-verb agreement (section 10:
1001).
11.
Expressions such as with, together with, including, accompanied by, in addition to, or as
well do not change the number of the subject. If the subject is singular, the verb is too.
The President, accompanied by his wife, is traveling to India.
All of the books, including yours, are in that box.
22
Pronoun-antecedent agreement
1. Agree in number
If the pronoun takes the place of a singular noun, you have to use a singular pronoun.
If a student parks a car on campus, he or she has to buy a parking sticker.
(INCORRECT: If a student parks a car on campus, they have to buy a parking
sticker.)
Remember: the words everybody, anybody, anyone, each, neither, nobody, someone, a person,
etc. are singular and take singular pronouns.
Everybody ought to do his or her best.
(INCORRECT: their best)
Neither of the girls brought her umbrella.
(INCORRECT: their umbrellas)
NOTE: Many people find the construction "his or her" wordy, so if it is possible to use a plural
noun as your antecedent and thus you can use "they" as your pronoun, it may be wise to do so. If
you do use a singular noun and the context makes the gender clear, then it is permissible to use
just "his" or "her" rather than "his or her."
2. Agree in person
If you are writing in the first person (I), don't confuse your reader by switching to the second
person (you) or third person (he, she, they, it, etc.). Similarly, if you are using the second
person, don't switch to first or third.
When a person comes to class, he or she should have his or her homework ready.
(INCORRECT: When a person comes to class, you should have your homework
ready.)
3. Refer clearly to a specific noun.
Don't be vague or ambiguous.
INCORRECT: Although the motorcycle hit the tree, it was not damaged. (Is "it"
the motorcycle or the tree?)
INCORRECT: I don't think they should show violence on TV. (Who are
"they"?)
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INCORRECT: Vacation is coming soon, which is nice. (What is nice, the
vacation or the fact that it is coming soon?)
INCORRECT: George worked in a national forest last summer. This may be his
life's work. (What word does "this" refer to?)
INCORRECT: If you put this sheet in your notebook, you can refer to it.
24
D.1.2.1 Use correct capitalization
Capitalization Rules
Rule 1: Capitalize the first word of a quoted sentence.
Examples:
He said, "Treat her as you would your own daughter."
"Look out!" she screamed. "You almost ran into my child."
Rule 2: Capitalize a proper noun.
Example:
Golden Gate Bridge
Rule 3: Capitalize a person's title when it precedes the name. Do not capitalize when the
title is acting as a description following the name.
Examples:
Chairperson Petrov
Ms. Petrov, the chairperson of the company, will address us at noon.
Rule 4: Capitalize the person's title when it follows the name on the address or signature
line.
Example:
Sincerely,
Ms. Haines, Chairperson
Rule 5: Capitalize the titles of high-ranking government officials when used before their
names. Do not capitalize the civil title if it is used instead of the name.
Examples:
The president will address Congress.
All senators are expected to attend.
The governors, lieutenant governors, and attorneys general called for a
special task force.
Governor Fortinbrass, Lieutenant Governor Poppins, Attorney General
Dalloway, and Senators James and Twain will attend.
Rule 6: Capitalize any title when used as a direct address.
Example:
Will you take my temperature, Doctor?
Rule 7: Capitalize points of the compass only when they refer to specific regions.
Examples:
We have had three relatives visit from the South.
Go south three blocks and then turn left.
We live in the southeast section of town.
Southeast is just an adjective here describing section, so it should not be
capitalized.
25
Rule 8: Always capitalize the first and last words of titles of publications regardless of
their parts of speech. Capitalize other words within titles, including the short verb forms
Is, Are, and Be.
Exception: Do not capitalize little words within titles such as a, an, the, but, as, if, and, or, nor,
or prepositions, regardless of their length.
Examples:
The Day of the Jackal
What Color Is Your Parachute?
A Tale of Two Cities
Rule 9: Capitalize federal or state when used as part of an official agency name or in
government documents where these terms represent an official name. If they are being
used as general terms, you may use lowercase letters.
Examples:
The state has evidence to the contrary.
That is a federal offense.
The State Board of Equalization collects sales taxes.
We will visit three states during our summer vacation.
The Federal Bureau of Investigation has been subject to much scrutiny
and criticism lately.
Her business must comply with all county, state, and federal laws.
Rule 10: You may capitalize words such as department, bureau, and office if you have
prepared your text in the following way:
Example:
The Bureau of Land Management (Bureau) has some jurisdiction over
Indian lands. The Bureau is finding its administrative role to be
challenging.
Rule 11: Do not capitalize names of seasons.
Example:
I love autumn colors and spring flowers.
Rule 12: Capitalize the first word of a salutation and the first word of a complimentary
close.
Examples:
Dear Ms. Mohamed:
My dear Mr. Sanchez:
Very truly yours,
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Rule 13: Capitalize words derived from proper nouns.
Example:
I must take English and math.
English is capitalized because it comes from the proper noun England, but
math does not come from Mathland.
Rule 14: Capitalize the names of specific course titles.
Example:
I must take history and Algebra 2.
Rule 15: After a sentence ending with a colon, do not capitalize the first word if it begins a
list.
Example:
These are my favorite foods: chocolate cake, spaghetti, and artichokes.
Rule 16: Do not capitalize when only one sentence follows a sentence ending with a colon.
Example:
I love Jane Smiley's writing: her book, A Thousand Acres, was beautiful.
Rule 17: Capitalize when two or more sentences follow a sentence ending with a colon.
Example:
I love Jane Smiley's writing: Her book, A Thousand Acres, was beautiful.
Also, Moo was clever.
27
D.1.2.2 Use commas and quotation marks to mark direct speech and
quotations from a text
Using Quotation Marks
The primary function of quotation marks is to set off and represent exact language (either spoken
or written) that has come from somebody else. The quotation mark is also used to designate
speech acts in fiction and sometimes poetry. Since you will most often use them when working
with outside sources, successful use of quotation marks is a practical defense against accidental
plagiarism and an excellent practice in academic honesty. The following rules of quotation mark
use are the standard in the United States, although it may be of interest that usage rules for this
punctuation do vary in other countries.
Direct Quotations
Direct quotations involve incorporating another person's exact words into your own writing.
1.
Quotation marks always come in pairs. Do not open a quotation and fail to close it at the
end of the quoted material.
2.
Capitalize the first letter of a direct quote when the quoted material is a complete sentence.
Mr. Johnson, who was working in his field that morning, said, "The alien
spaceship appeared right before my own two eyes."
3. Do not use a capital letter when the quoted material is a fragment or only a piece of the
original material's complete sentence.
Although Mr. Johnson has seen odd happenings on the farm, he stated that the
spaceship "certainly takes the cake" when it comes to unexplainable activity.
4. If a direct quotation is interrupted mid-sentence, do not capitalize the second part of the
quotation.
"I didn't see an actual alien being," Mr. Johnson said, "but I sure wish I had."
5.
In all the examples above, note how the period or comma punctuation always comes before
the final quotation mark. It is important to realize also that when you are using MLA or
some other form of documentation, this punctuation rule may change.
6.
Quotations are most effective if you use them sparingly and keep them relatively short.
Too many quotations in a research paper will get you accused of not producing original
thought or material (they may also bore a reader who wants to know primarily what YOU
have to say on the subject).
28
D.1.2.3 Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction in a compound
sentence
Coordinating conjunctions are used to join independent clauses to make compound sentences.
The coordinating conjunctions are as follows: and, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet. You can use
coordinating conjunctions to revise run-on sentences and comma splices (see above). You can
also use coordinating conjunctions to make writing less choppy by joining short, simple
sentences. Consider the following examples.
Independent Clauses: I wanted more popcorn. Sam wanted Junior Mints
Joined Together: I wanted more popcorn, but Sam wanted Junior Mints.
In this example, it is necessary to put a comma before the coordinating conjunction but because
there are two independent clauses being combined. Another way to think of this is that I wanted
more popcorn and Sam wanted Junior Mints could stand on their own as independent sentences.
So, there must be a comma and a conjunction between them.
Independent Clauses: I wanted more popcorn. I didn’t want any more soda.
Joined Together: I wanted more popcorn but no soda.
In this example, we’ve combined the sentences with the coordinating conjunction but. We’ve
also eliminated some of the words so that the sentence wouldn’t sound redundant. In this case, it
isn’t necessary to put a comma before but because there are not two independent clauses joined
together.
29
D.1.2.4 Spell grade-appropriate words correctly
Refer to Grade 4 Word Study Documents.
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D.2.1.1 Choose words and phrases to convey ideas precisely
Word Choice (Diction)
It is important that the words you use be precise and that they express your ideas clearly. It is
also important that the words you use are varied, so that you aren’t using the same words again
and again. This resource provides tips for checking your word choice.
Choosing Appropriate Words
Avoid the following pitfalls. First, most slang that you might use in everyday language is too
casual for a formal essay. Similarly, casual language that you often use in everyday speech
might create too casual a tone for an essay. Finally, clichés that we use in everyday conversation
(green with envy, face the music, add insult to injury, etc.) can make your writing sound boring.
Consider the paragraph and revision below.
Original Paragraph
When I started thinking about getting a new job, I was completely clueless. I knew I wanted to
do something really cool, but I was lost about what might fit the bill.
Revised Paragraph
When I started thinking about getting a new job, I was overwhelmed by my options and unsure
of what to choose. While I knew I wanted to do something interesting, I was uncertain of what
that might be.
Choosing Precise Words
When thinking about whether the language you use conveys the meaning you want, put yourself
in your reader’s position. Specifically, consider the following issues:
Connotations: A connotation is an association that readers might have with a specific word.
An example is the different associations brought up by the words pride and arrogance. While the
two words have similar meanings, pride is generally has positive associations while arrogance
carries negative associations. Consider the connotations that certain words have when choosing
your language and revising for word choice.
Similar sound, different meaning: Be careful of words that sound similar but have different
meanings. Some examples are alternate/alternative, intelligent/intelligible, moral/morale,
portion/proportion.
General versus specific: In your writing, you will use both general and specific words. While
your goal is to include both, you should try to avoid overusing words that are really general. An
example is the word interesting. For example, if you describe an idea as interesting, your reader
31
may wonder what, exactly, is interesting about it. Other examples of general words include
good, thing, and some. Words like these are fine to use, but you need to add specific detail so
that your writing does not become vague.
Avoiding Repetition
When proofreading your essay, look out for repetitive wording. Just as you should vary your
sentence structure (see Lesson 4), you should also vary the words you use. As you write practice
essays, you may even identify some words that you tend to use frequently. Just as you keep
track of errors you often make, you can keep track of words that you overuse.
Identifying these words can help you avoid overusing them as you write. You can even keep a
list of these words and look up possible alternatives to use in a thesaurus. Try to find a teacher to
read your practice essays when you use new words, however. You want to be sure you’re using
a new word correctly.
Transition Words
Transition words are clues to your reader that help them follow your ideas. You can use these
words to link and transition between ideas, sentences, and paragraphs. For example, writers
often use transition words when listing ideas, as in the following paragraph:
I prefer watching television shows instead of movies for a number of reasons. First, TV shows
are shorter, so I don’t spend as much time watching them as I do when watching movies.
Second, TV shows are drawn out over many episodes over many seasons, so I can get to know
the characters better than the characters in a two-hour movie. Finally, I like watching television
shows more than watching movies because they give me something to look forward to each
week.
You can use transition words for a variety of purposes aside from listing. Transition words for
different purposes are listed below. Try using these in your writing to help guide readers through
your essay.

To show examples: for example, for instance

To show sequence: first, second, third, etc., next, then, following this, finally,
consequently, subsequently, thus, therefore, hence

To add: and, again, and then, besides, equally important, finally, further, furthermore,
nor, too, next, lastly, what's more, moreover, in addition, first (second, etc.)

To compare: but, yet, on the other hand, however, nevertheless, on the contrary, by
comparison, where, compared to, although, in contrast, although this may be true

To summarize or conclude: in brief, summing up, to conclude, in conclusion, as I
have shown, as I have said, hence, therefore, thus, consequently
32

To emphasize: definitely, extremely, obviously, in fact, indeed, absolutely,
positively, naturally, surprisingly, always, forever, never, emphatically,
unquestionably, without a doubt, certainly, undeniably

To show time: immediately, thereafter, soon, finally, then, later, previously,
formerly, first (second, etc.), next.
33
D.2.1.2 Choose punctuation for effect
Four Types of Sentences and the Effect of Punctuation
When students learn to write, they begin by learning about the four types of sentences and the
role punctuation plays in determining and creating those different sentence types.
The four types of sentences in the English language include:




Declarative sentence
Imperative sentence
Interrogative sentence
Exclamatory sentence
And there are only three punctuation marks with which to end a sentence:



Period
Question mark
Exclamation point
Using different types of sentences and punctuation, students can vary the tone of their writing
assignments and express a variety of thoughts and emotions.
A declarative sentence simply makes a statement or expresses an opinion. In other words, it
makes a declaration. This kind of sentence ends with a period.
Examples of this sentence type:
“I want to be a good writer.” (Makes a statement)
“My friend is a really good writer.” (Expresses an opinion)
An imperative sentence gives a command or makes a request. It usually ends with a period but
can, under certain circumstances, end with an exclamation point.
Examples of this sentence type:
“Please sit down.”
“I need you to sit down now!”
34
An interrogative sentence asks a question. This type of sentence often begins with who, what,
where, when, why, how, or do, and it ends with a question mark.
Examples of this sentence type:
“When are you going to turn in your writing assignment?”
“Do you know what the weather will be tomorrow?”
An exclamatory sentence is a sentence that expresses great emotion such as excitement,
surprise, happiness and anger, and ends with an exclamation point.
Examples of this sentence type:
“It is too dangerous to climb that mountain!”
“I got an A on my book report!”
Learning about the different types of sentences and punctuation will help students become better
writers by enabling them to convey various types of information and emotion in their writing.
35
D.2.1.3 Choose words and phrases for effect
Words are the writer’s basic tools:
They create the color and texture of the written work. They both reflect and determine the level
of formality. They shape the reader’s perceptions. Student should rarely skip words they do not
know when studying serious literature. (It’s like wearing earplugs to a symphony.) To
understand voice, students must “hear” the words and “feel” their effects.
Diction (word choice) reflects the writer’s vision and steers the reader’s thought. Effective voice
is shaped by words that are clear, concrete and exact. Good writers eschew words like pretty,
nice, and bad. Instead, they use words that invoke a specific effect.



A coat isn’t torn; it is tattered.
The U.S. Army does not want revenge; it is thirsty for revenge.
A door does not shut; it thuds.
Specific diction brings the reader into the scene, enabling full participation in the writer’s world.
Diction depends on topic, purpose, and occasion. The topic often determines the specificity and
sophistication of diction. Articles on computers are filled with specialized language: email,
e-shopping, web, interface. The writer’s purpose—whether to convince, entertain, amuse,
inform, or plead—partly determines diction. Words chosen to impart a particular effect on the
reader reflect and sustain the writer’s purpose.
If the author’s purpose is to inform, the reader should expect straightforward diction. If the
writer’s purpose is to entertain, the reader will likely encounter words used in ironic, playful, or
unexpected ways.
Diction also depends on the occasion. As with clothes, level of formality influences appropriate
choices.
Formal diction is largely reserved for scholarly writing and serious prose or poetry.
Informal diction is the norm in expository essays, newspaper editorials, and works of fiction.
Colloquial diction and slang borrow from informal speech and are typically used to create a
mood or capture a particular historic or regional dialect. Appropriateness of diction is
determined by the norms of society.
When studying diction, students must understand both connotation (the meaning suggested by
the word) and denotation (the word’s literal meaning). When a writer calls a character slender,
the word evokes a different feeling from calling the character gaunt. A word’s power to produce
a strong reaction in the reader lies mainly in its connotative meaning.
Diction can impart freshness and originality to writing. Words used in surprising or unusual
ways make us rethink what is known and re-examine meaning. Good writers often opt for
36
complexity rather than simplicity, for multiple meanings rather than precision. Thus diction, the
foundation of voice, shapes a reader’s thinking while guiding reader insight into the author’s
idiosyncratic expression of thought: the writer’s voice.
Explain the differences in connotation among the members of each of the following groups of
words:

Corpulent, plump, obese, pudgy, heavy-set, fleshy, fat, paunchy, burly, overweight, rolypoly, bulky, portly, beefy.

Mansion, abode, dwelling, domicile, residence, house, home, habitat, Hurl, throw, pitch,
chuck, toss, fling, cast.

Arrogant, stuck-up, conceited, cocky, vain, proud, self-satisfied, egotistical, overbearing,
supercilious.

Cheat, phony, con man, fraud, charlatan, operator, crook, imposter, quack, swindler.4

Naked, nude, stripped, bare, unclothed, in the buff.

Bizarre, singular, far out, outlandish, off the wall, curious, odd, unusual, extraordinary,
remarkable, noteworthy, strange, eerie.

Titter, giggle, chuckle, laugh, guffaw, roar, snicker, snigger, cackle.

Saving, tight, miserly, frugal, economical, careful, penurious, thrifty, penny-pinching,
budget-minded, prudent, mean.

Honest, straight, on the level, veracious, guileless, unaffected, artless, genuine, candid,
truthful, sincere.

Buff, enthusiast, amateur, fan, fanatic, hobbyist, bug, connoisseur.

Pig-headed, stubborn, obdurate, adamant, stiff-necked, rigid obstinate, unalterable,
changeless, dogged, steadfast.

Sullen, taciturn, glum, withdrawn, down, silent, reticent, wordless.

Concise, pointed, laconic, terse, bare bones, economical, pithy, compressed, brief, boiled
down.

Steal, purloin, pinch, rip off, filch, embezzle, burglarize, rob, hold up, snatch, grab, help
oneself to, appropriate.
Often two words roughly “mean” the same thing, except that one has an unfavorable, the other a
favorable, connotation. Thus, although you may like to think of yourself as an idealist, people
37
who do not sympathize with your attitudes might call you a dreamer. For the following pairs of
terms, write short explanations of why you might like to be described by one term but not by the
other:




Slender/skinny
High-strung/freaked out
Trusting/gullible
Firm/stubborn
 Reckless/adventurous