Download Alfred Russel Wallace

Carl Linnaeus made it his life’s work to develop and refine a way
to classify and name all life on Earth.
Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778)
He was one of the most influential scientists of his time. His theory of
classification allowed for clear and easy descriptions of plants, animals
and minerals.
So straightforward was his new naming system, it is still used by scientists
today.
Appointed Lecturer in Botany, it was during this period that Linnaeus
began to outline the theory of plant reproduction, which he was later to use
to construct his system of plant classification.
Linnaeus’ theory of classification
In the early 18th century, scientific names for species were already in
Latin, but were often long and unwieldy. For example, the humble tomato
was called Solanum caule inermi herbaceo, foliis pinnatis incisis, racemis
simplicibus.
Linnaeus’ idea was to divide nature into groups based on shared physical
characteristics. Firstly, the 3 kingdoms of plants, animals and minerals.
Kingdoms were divided into classes and then into orders, which were
divided into genera (singular: genus) and then species (singular: species).
Simple names
Linnaeus gave all the plants known at that time a simpler Latin name in 2
parts, known as a binomial. The first part was the genus, followed by the
species. Using this system, the tomato became a more manageable
Solanum lycopersicum.
He gave binomial names to animals 5 years later and, between 1753 and
his death, he named thousands of plants and animals in this way. This
binomial system was adopted by other scientists and became the standard
way of naming organisms.
Mary Anning
The greatest fossil hunter ever known was a woman from Lyme
Regis. Mary Anning's discoveries were some of the most
significant geological finds of all time. They provided evidence
that was central to the development of new ideas about the history
of the Earth.
Mary Anning (1799-1847).
Mary’s contribution had a major impact at a time when there was little to
challenge the biblical interpretation of the story of creation and of the
flood. The spectacular marine reptiles that Mary unearthed shook the
scientific community into looking at different explanations for changes in
the natural world.
Selling seashells on the seashore
Her father Richard was a carpenter and cabinet-maker who taught his
daughter how to look for and to clean fossils.
They sold the ‘curiosities’ they collected from a stall on the seafront,
where they found customers among the middle classes who flocked to
Lyme in the summer.
Their shop was such a feature of the area that some people think that
Mary was the inspiration for the well-known tongue-twister 'She sells
seashells on the seashore', which was written by Terry Sullivan in1908.
First fabulous find
In 1811, Mary’s brother Joseph found a skull protruding from a cliff.
Over a period of months Mary painstakingly uncovered an almost
complete skeleton of a ‘crocodile’.
The specimen was bought by the local lord of the manor Henry Hoste
Henley who sold it to William Bullock for his Museum of Natural
Curiosities in London.
This brought Mary’s reputation to the attention of scientific circles. The
specimen was later named Ichthyosaurus, the ‘fish-lizard’, by scientists
de la Beche and Conybeare.
More sensational fossils
Further sensational finds were made. New, more complete skeletons of
ichthyosaurs were discovered. This was followed by a complete
skeleton of the long-necked Plesiosaurus, the ‘sea-dragon’ in 1823. It
proved the inspiration for Thomas Hawkins’ 1840 publication Book of
the Great Sea Dragons.
This was followed by the ‘flying-dragon’ Pterodactylus in 1828, and
Squaloraja, a fossil fish intermediary between a shark and a ray, in
1829.
In the winter of 1830, she found a new, large-headed Plesiosaurus,
bought for 200 guineas, £210, by William Willoughby, later Earl of
Enniskillen. Her discoveries were featured in the lithograph Duria
Antiquior, A More Ancient Dorset, prepared by Henry de la Beche
around1830 for her financial benefit.
Final recognition
Nine years before her death she was given an annuity, or annual
payment, raised by members of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science and the Geological Society of London.
She was the first honorary member of the new Dorset County
Museum.
Her death in 1847 was recorded by the Geological Society (which did
not admit women until 1904) and her life commemorated by a stained
glass window in the local church.
Charles Darwin
Charles Darwin transformed the way we understand the natural
world with his revolutionary ideas. But why wasn’t everyone
convinced?
Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882).
He developed a radical theory that brought him into conflict with a very
traditional establishment – the Anglican Church. History has vindicated
him and he is now celebrated as one of the greatest and most
innovative scientists who ever lived. But, Alfred Russel Wallace, who hit
upon the theory at the same time, has not received similar recognition.
To this day, Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection is widely
accepted, and explains the distant origins and fantastic variety of life on
Earth.
In 1831 Darwin embarked on a 5-year voyage aboard the Beagle. The
ship sailed to South America to carry out surveying work.
Darwin explored remote regions and marveled at a world so different
from the one he knew. He encountered birds with bright blue feet,
sharks with T-shaped heads and oversized tortoises.
Everywhere he went, Darwin amassed plants, animals and fossils, and
took copious notes. These collections and records were to provide the
clues he needed to develop his remarkable theory.
On returning to England in 1836, Darwin spent years analysing his
specimens.
Theory of natural selection
Darwin realised that evolution occurs by the process of natural
selection. The ‘fittest’ animals or plants – those with the characteristics
best suited to their environment – are more likely to survive and
reproduce.
They pass on these desirable characteristics to their offspring.
Gradually those features become more common, causing the species
to change over time. If the changes are great enough, they could
produce a new species altogether.
Cactus finch found in the Galapagos Islands, collected during the
Voyage of the Beagle.
Darwin had collected some finches from the Galápagos Islands, which
helped him to formulate his idea. Some had stout beaks for eating
seeds, others were insect specialists. He realised they were
descendents of a single ancestor. As they dispersed to different
islands, the birds had adapted to eat the various foods available.
Natural selection had produced 13 different species.
Wallace and a joint announcement
Darwin knew his radical ideas would meet with stiff opposition. He
delayed publishing them for many years while he assembled a
mountain of evidence. He sought the advice of Cambridge professors,
pig breeders and pigeon fanciers.
During this time, Darwin learnt that Alfred Russel Wallace, a young
naturalist, had developed similar ideas to his own. Scrupulously honest,
Darwin volunteered to send Wallace’s ideas to a journal for immediate
publication. However, his friends advised that the fairest solution would
be a joint announcement.
In the following year, 1859, Darwin published his contentious but
celebrated book, On the Origin of Species.
Evolution versus creation
Title Page of 'On The Origin of Species by means of natural selection'
by Charles Darwin, 1859
On the Origin of Species provoked outrage from some members of the
Church of England as it implicitly contradicted the belief in divine
creation. Darwin's opponents accused him of blasphemy but their
efforts were in vain - the book was already becoming a bestseller.
The Descent of Man, published in 1871, aroused even greater debate
since it suggested that humans descended from apes.
The vexed Bishop of Oxford famously asked Thomas Huxley, one of
Darwin’s most enthusiastic supporters, whether it was through his
grandfather or grandmother that he claimed descent from a monkey.
Despite the attacks, Darwin’s conviction in scientific theory remained
unshaken.
Darwin’s legacy
Although Darwin’s theory has been modified over time, it remains
fundamental to the study of life sciences. But the controversy still
exists.
There are some who don't agree with Darwin's theory being taught in
school biology classes. However the theory of evolution is accepted by
the scientific community as the best, evidence-based explanation for
the diversity and complexity of life on Earth.
Darwin changed not only the way we see plants and animals, but also
the way we see ourselves.
The animals and plants he collected form part of our national heritage
and many are cared for at the Natural History Museum.
John Ray (1628-1705)
John Ray is often referred to as the father of natural history in Britain.
John Ray was born on November 29, 1627, in Essex, England. Between 1660
and 1671 he made many trips throughout England, and one trip to Europe, to
collect plants, animals, and rocks.
Starting in 1660 with his Catalogue of Cambridge Plants, Ray published
systematic works on plants, birds, mammals, fish, and insects, in which he
brought order to the chaotic mass of names in use by the naturalists of his
time. Like Linnaeus, Ray searched for the "natural system," a classification of
organisms that would reflect the Divine Order of creation. Unlike Linnaeus,
whose plant classification was based entirely on floral reproductive organs,
Ray classified plants by overall morphology (shape): the classification in his
1682 book Methodus Plantarum Nova draws on flowers, seeds, fruits, and
roots. Ray's plant classification system was the first to divide flowering
plants into monocots and dicots. This method produced more "natural"
results than "artificial" systems based on one feature alone; it expressed the
similarities between species more fully.
Alfred Russel Wallace
An intrepid explorer and brilliant naturalist, Alfred Russel Wallace
co-published the theory of evolution by natural selection with
Charles Darwin. So why isn't he as well known?
Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913).
Alfred Russel Wallace was a man of many talents - an explorer,
collector, naturalist, geographer, anthropologist and political
commentator. Most famously, he had the revolutionary idea of evolution
by natural selection entirely independently of Charles Darwin.
This ground-breaking theory changed the way we understand the
natural world, and ourselves. But Wallace's remarkable
accomplishments are not as appreciated today as they were in his own
lifetime.
Wallace was one of the most prolific collectors of natural history
specimens of all time.
Adventures on the Amazon
Wallace and Bates arrived in Brazil, at the mouth of the Amazon, in
1848. Their aim, inspired by their enthusiasm for studying nature, was
to investigate the origin of species. They planned to finance the trip by
collecting specimens and selling them. In order to cover more ground,
the two men split up. Wallace went north by river, collecting in areas
previously unexplored by European naturalists. He amassed thousands
of unique and exciting animal specimens, mostly birds, beetles and
butterflies.
After more than four years collecting, Wallace booked passage and
sailed back to England, but disaster struck on the high seas. The ship
caught fire and sank along with virtually all his specimens and diaries.
Fortunately the crew and passengers were rescued by a passing ship
in the mid-Atlantic.
The Malay Archipelago and Wallace's Line
Wallace began his travels through the Malay Archipelago (now
Malaysia and Indonesia) in 1854. Over a period of eight years, he
accumulated an astonishing total of 125,660 specimens, including more
than 5,000 species new to science.
Wallace noticed a striking pattern in the distribution of animals around
the archipelago. He proposed an imaginary line dividing the region in
two major parts. Later known as Wallace's line, this marked the
boundary between the animal life of the Australian region and that of
Asia.
On returning home, Wallace published a travel book, The Malay
Archipelago. His vivid account of the beautiful, undisturbed islands
opened up a whole new world to readers. Highlights include his
colourful descriptions of birds of paradise and orang-utans, and
encounters with native peoples.
'In this archipelago there are two distinct faunas… yet there is
nothing on the map or on the face of the islands to mark their limits'
(From a letter in which Wallace describes the line that would
eventually be named after him)
Wallace and Darwin
One day in 1858, while feverish and confined to his hut on the island of
Ternate (now in Indonesia), Wallace had a flash of inspiration. He
realised how species evolved - they changed because the fittest
individuals survived and reproduced, passing their advantageous
characteristics on to their offspring. Wallace immediately wrote to
someone he knew was interested in the subject, Charles Darwin.
Darwin had been working on the very same theory for twenty years, but
was yet to publish. He sought the advice of his friends, who determined
that the ideas of both men would be presented at a meeting of the
Linnean Society. Darwin's masterpiece, The Origin of Species, came
out the following year.
From that time on, Darwin overshadowed Wallace and it has usually
been his name alone associated with the theory of evolution by natural
selection. But Wallace expressed no resentment at this, and in fact he
was Darwin's greatest fan. His role in the matter, and Darwin's support,
ensured his entry to the highest ranks of the scientific establishment.
'He could not have made a better short abstract! Even his terms now
stand as heads of my chapters!' (Charles Darwin)
The surprising spiritualist
Wallace and Darwin did not agree on everything. Wallace, to the
discomfort of many contemporaries, was a spiritualist. He believed that
natural selection could not explain the human intellect, and that the
human spirit persisted after death. A tireless thinker, he wrote widely on
this and other diverse topics including land ownership, workers' rights,
law, economics and museums. By the time of his death, Wallace had
written more than 20 books and over 1,000 articles and published
letters. Wallace, unlike Darwin, is not a household name but
increasingly his outstanding achievements are receiving the acclaim
they deserve.
Dorothea Bate
Dorothea Bate was the consummate palaeontologist, zoologist
and ornithologist, making a career of her science when women of
her generation regarded it as a hobby. Resourceful and fearless,
she explored the remote regions on the Mediterranean islands
alone. She engaged with all the scientists she knew and quietly
pioneered a new interdisciplinary science.
Dorothea Bate (1878-1951).
It became part of the Dorothea Bate legend that if archaeologists and
prehistorians sent her sufficient quantities of bony fragments, she would
give them a complete account not only of the fauna, but of the climate
and environment as well.
Dorothea Bate had an encyclopaedic knowledge of mammals and
birds, from those that lived millions of years ago to more recent species
from the last few thousand years. Using this knowledge, she could
relate fauna, or animal life, to the environment and climate of the time.
This laid the foundations of the science of archaeozoology.
Work
First fossil finds
In the Wye Valley (Wales) she made her first palaeontological
discoveries, 15 species of mammals and birds from the Pleistocene era
dating back to the Ice Age around 10,000 years ago. Six of the
mammals, including the pika and Norwegian lemming, are now extinct
in Britain.
Encouraged by the palaeontologists in the Museum including the
Keeper Dr Henry Woodward, she published her first report in the
Geological Magazine. She was just 22.
Exploring the Mediterranean
Between 1901 and 1911 Dorothea explored the Mediterranean islands.
In Cyprus and Crete she discovered tiny fossil elephants and
hippopotami.
In Majorca she found a bizarre extinct goat-like antelope with rat-like
teeth, a new species that she named Myotragus, as well as squirrelsized dormice and giant tortoises.
In Cyprus, she collected more than 200 specimens of live species of
birds, mammals, butterflies, beetles, mosquitoes and other insects. She
sent all of these back to the Museum.
Island evolution
Her discoveries provided evidence of unusually large (gigantism) or
small (dwarfism) animals on isolated islands. Large animals, in the
confined environment of islands and with limited food, become smaller
and stockier. Small mammals become larger due to lack of predators.
Palestine digs
From 1935 to 1937, Dorothea excavated an extraordinary hilltop site in
Bethlehem. Pre-Pleistocene animals dating back more than 1.8 million
years were found, including elephants, rhinoceros, giant tortoises and
Hipparion, an early species of horse.
Previously, in 1929, the well-known archaeologist Dorothy Garrod
began excavations in the caves on Mount Carmel, sending material to
Dorothea to examine and describe.
Dorothea joined Garrod for the final season in 1934. They found 52
different species including remains of pig, deer and gazelle. The results
were published in 1937 as The Stone Age of Mount Carmel Vol I.
The most common species they found were the woodland Persian
fallow deer, Dama mesopotamica, and Gazella, the desert-dwelling
gazelle.
From these two species Dorothea put together a ‘census’ charting the
changes in climate that occurred during the human occupation of the
caves. Known as the Dama-Gazella graph it is still used by prehistorians and archaeologists of the region.
Frederick Sanger
Frederick Sanger
Born
Died
13 August 1918
19 November 2013
Sanger invented a method to examine DNA carefully and look at
differences in the DNA of different living things. This would
allow other scientists to group living things according to how
genetically related they are.