Download Evaluation of deindividuation – essay plan

Unit 3: Aggression
Exam board specification:
Social psychological
approaches to explaining
aggression


Social psychological theories of aggression, for example, social learning
theory, deindividuation
Institutional aggression
Biological explanations of
aggression


Neural and hormonal mechanisms in aggression
Genetic factors in aggressive behaviour

Evolutionary explanations of human aggression, including infidelity and
jealousy
Evolutionary explanations of group display in humans, for example sport and
warfare
Evolution and human
aggression

What you need to know:
You will be expected to outline and evaluate each of the areas:
Social psychological
theories
-
Social learning theory
Deindividuation
Institutional aggression
-
Power of the situation and dehumanising labels
Importation model
Genetic factors
-
The general genetic theory
The role of a specific gene deficit: MAO-A, the warrior gene
Neural mechanisms
-
The role of neurotransmitters
Hormonal mechanisms
-
Three short explanations: high testosterone, high testosterone/low serotonin,
mismatch effect
Evolutionary explanations
of human aggression
Evolutionary explanations
of group display in humans
-
Infidelity and jealousy
-
Warfare
Sport
Social psychological approaches to aggression
Social psychological theories of aggression:
You studied this section in the summer term, so this section of the pack is
designed to get you to consolidate your knowledge and practice essay planning.
Theory 1: Social learning theory (SLT)
Write 5 key terms/phrases that relate to the SLT in the space below:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Evaluation of the social learning theory – essay plan
Supporting evidence
(Remember: you must be able to say how the evidence supports the theory - grounding)
Criticisms of
supporting evidence
(Remember: you must be able to say how what impact this has on the strength of the
supporting evidence)
IDA
Wider evaluation
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Useful applications
Implications of theory
General
strengths/weaknesses
of theory
Comparisons with
other theories
Other relevant IDA
points.
Theory 2: Deindividuation
Write 5 key terms/phrases that relate to deindividuation in the space below:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Evaluation of deindividuation – essay plan
Supporting evidence
(Remember: you must be able to say how the evidence supports the theory - grounding)
Criticisms of
supporting evidence
(Remember: you must be able to say how what impact this has on the strength of the
supporting evidence)
IDA
Wider evaluation





Useful applications
Implications of theory
General
strengths/weaknesses
of theory
Comparisons with
other theories
Other relevant IDA
points.
Institutional aggression:
Theory 1: The power of the situation and dehumanising labels
Write 5 key terms/phrases that relate to this explanation in the space below:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Evaluation – essay plan
Supporting evidence
(Remember: you must be able to say how the evidence supports the theory - grounding)
Criticisms of
supporting evidence
(Remember: you must be able to say how what impact this has on the strength of the
supporting evidence)
IDA
Wider evaluation





Useful applications
Implications of theory
General
strengths/weaknesses
of theory
Comparisons with
other theories
Other relevant IDA
points.
Theory 2: The importation model
Write 5 key terms/phrases that relate to deindividuation in the space below:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Evaluation of the importation model – essay plan
Supporting evidence
(Remember: you must be able to say how the evidence supports the theory - grounding)
Criticisms of
supporting evidence
(Remember: you must be able to say how what impact this has on the strength of the
supporting evidence)
IDA
Wider evaluation





Useful applications
Implications of theory
General
strengths/weaknesses
of theory
Comparisons with
other theories
Other relevant IDA
points.
Biological explanations of aggression
Neural and hormonal mechanisms in aggression:
The role of neurotransmitters
Neural synapse
 Neural mechanisms refer to the role of
neurotransmitters e.g. serotonin
 Psychologists have suggested _______levels of
serotonin in the brain can be linked with impulsive
aggression.

What is impulsive aggression?

Normal levels of serotonin will have a _____________________________ on an individual.

Low levels of serotonin mean this inhibitory effect is gone. Therefore, people will be
_________________________ impulsive and aggressive tendencies.
Prefrontal Cortex and Amygdala
 Under normal circumstances, serotonin works in the
__________________ to inhibit the firing of the _________
 The amygdala is the almond-shaped structure that controls ______,
_______, and _______________ responses.
If there is ______ serotonin in the prefrontal cortex,
there will be ______inhibition of the amygdala
so the amygdala will not be under ________
 When the amygdala is stimulated by outside novel and potentially threatening
events, it will become more active, driving the person to act on their impulses.
Individuals have different levels of serotonin on a day to day, hour by hour basis.
However, there may also be people whom, for whatever reason, have lower levels of
serotonin all the time.

This theory would state that such individuals are predisposed to aggression.
Evaluation of neural mechanisms
IDA points relevant to this topic:
D: Reductionism
A: Biological
Choose one of these and write a comment on how the point relates to this topic and why this is an important
point.
Research evidence
Crockett et al (2008) carried out a repeated measures experiment on 20 participants. In both conditions the
participants had fasted and were given a protein drink in the morning before taking part in the study. The difference
in the drink was the difference in the conditions: one drink contained tryptophan, which the body needs to make
serotonin; the other drink did not contain it. On both days that the study took place participants played the
ultimatum game. In this game one player poses a way to split a sum of money with a partner. In the condition where
the participants had had the drink that did not contain tryptophan (so their serotonin levels were low) they showed
increased aggression toward offers they perceived to be unfair.
This supports neural mechanisms because….
Davidson et al (2000) found that violent criminals had markedly lower levels of serotonin to non-violent criminals.
This supports neural mechanism because……
Mann et al (1990), who manipulated levels of serotonin. They administered the drug dexfenfluramine known to
deplete serotonin levels, to 35 healthy adults. They then used a questionnaire to assess hostility and aggression
levels, and found these levels had increased among males after treatment with the drug.
This supports neural mechanisms because…..
Potegal et al (1996) researched hamsters and found that stimulation of the corticomedial amygdala increases
aggression and lesioning of this area reduces aggression in hamsters.
This supports neural mechanisms because…..
Evaluation of research:
Comment on the validity and/or reliability of the research evidence for this topic.
Additional point:
There are many studies that investigate the role of neural mechanisms in aggression which use animals and/or
specific types of people (e.g. criminals). What potential problems could this pose for the explanation?
Wider evaluation
Consider the following question:

If low serotonin levels are involved in aggression, how could we use this knowledge to reduce aggression in
society?

Neural explanations, similar to other biological explanations, perceive aggression to be biologically determined
therefore they do not consider the role of free-will.
What are the downsides to taking this view? Alternatively, what are the potential positives?
The role of hormones
Testosterone is a hormone. It is present in both men and women, although men have around eight times as much of
it as women. The picture for how testosterone links to aggression is less clear than for the role of genetics or the
role of neural mechanisms in aggression, but it is equally controversial.

Early theories simply state that high testosterone causes aggression, so people who have higher levels of
testosterone – whether permanently or temporarily – will be more aggressive. More recently, high testosterone
has been linked to the need for dominance rather than aggression. For instance, successful businessmen and
athletes have higher testosterone than their less successful counterparts, but are not necessarily more aggressive
– they simply want to dominate.

So, how does testosterone link to aggression? It may come into play when the individual has high testosterone
but low serotonin. The high testosterone makes them seek dominance and they are therefore put in situations
where frustration of dominance may occur. If frustrated, the low levels of serotonin in the prefrontal cortex
mean that the impulsive behaviour caused by the amygdala is not under control, with aggression as the result.

An alternative theory is the mismatch effect. This effect also reflects the view that testosterone links to
dominance, so the higher the testosterone you have, the more dominance or status you also want. According to
the mismatch effect, testosterone only becomes important when there is a mismatch between the level of
testosterone in the body and the status of the individual. If an individual has high status and high testosterone, no
aggression will result, but high testosterone and low status, or low testosterone and high status, will result in
aggression.
Evaluation of hormonal mechanisms
IDA points relevant to this topic:
D: Gender bias
A: Determinism
Choose one of these and write a comment on how the point relates to this topic and why this is an important
point.
Research evidence
Josephs et al (2006) found that men and women high in testosterone levels reacted negatively after a loss of high
status becoming stressed, confused, and anxious which is a state of mind that could lead to aggression. However,
men and women with low levels of testosterone who were put into a position of high status showed the same
pattern of upset which could also lead to aggression.
How does this evidence support the role of hormones in aggression?
Kreuz & Rose (1972) studied testosterone levels in a group of 21 young adult male prisoners. Their testosterone
levels did not relate to whether they fought with others whilst in prison, but it did relate to the nature of the crimes
they had committed. The 10 prisoners with histories of more violent crime such as assault and armed robbery did
have statistically higher levels of testosterone than the 11 prisoners who had committed non-violent crimes.
How does this evidence support the role of hormones in aggression?
Evaluation of research:
Comment on the validity and/or reliability of the research evidence for this topic.
Additional point:
Similar to the neural mechanism explanation, there are also many studies that investigate the role of hormones in
aggression which use animals and/or specific types of people (e.g. criminals).
Wider evaluation
Consider the following question:

If hormones are linked to aggressive behaviour then we could potentially manipulate the hormones of someone
who is aggressive (e.g. via chemical castration). What moral and ethical issues does this raise?
Genetic factors in aggressive behaviour:
The general genetic theory
The genetic explanation for aggression says that aggression is inherited; aggressive people inherit genes that lead
them to be aggressive. The closer the relationship to the aggressive person, the stronger will be the inherited
tendency. For instance, if the father is aggressive because of his genes, the son will show more inherited aggression
than the grandson (providing the grandson has no additional forebears who were aggressive for genetic reasons).
Likewise, the more forebears you have who are aggressive for genetic reasons, the more likely you are to have
inherited genes for aggression.
The role of a specific gene deficit: MAO-A, the warrior gene
A so called “warrior gene” has been linked to brain chemistry and increased aggression; in some cases, people
inherit a genetic mutation that causes a deficiency in monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A) – so they inherit the “warrior
gene”. MAO-A is an enzyme that causes the breakdown of excess monoamine neurotransmitters in the brain, such
as noradrenaline and dopamine.
The warrior gene is found on the X chromosome, which is why the gene is more prevalent in men; women are
protected from the faulty gene by their other X chromosome. The warrior gene is simply a shorter, less active
version of a gene allele (an alternative form of a gene caused by a mutation) on the X chromosome known as the
If people inherit the warrior gene they will have an excess amount of some neurotransmitters in the brain because
not enough MAO-A has been released. This excess amount of neurotransmitters predisposes the individual to
become aggressive when under stress including when angry, fearful or frustrated
Evaluation
IDA points relevant to this topic:
D: Reductionism
A: Biological
Choose one of these and write a comment on how the point relates to this topic and why this is an important
point.
Research evidence for general genetic theory
Many twin studies have found a higher concordance rate for aggression between MZ twins rather than DZ. For
example, McGuffin & Gottesman (1985) found a concordance rate of 0.87 (or 87%) between MZ twins and 0.72
between DZ twins for aggression and anti-social behaviour.
What does this evidence suggests about the link between genes and aggression?
Hutchings & Mednick (1973) found a significant correlation between the criminal convictions of biological
fathers and the number of criminal convictions of their sons who had been adopted into other families.
What does this evidence suggests about the link between genes and aggression?
Evaluation of research into general genetic theory:
Comment on the validity and/or reliability of the research evidence for this topic.
Research evidence for the MAO-A gene
Four generations of males in a Dutch family inherited a defect with regard to their MAO-A gene, specifically a
mutation was identified in the eighth exon (section) of their MAO-A gene. This means they had the warrior gene.
The men with the defective gene (and not all men in the family inherited it) showed aggressive, sometimes violent
behaviour including arson and attempted rape. The men seemed unable to regulate impulsive aggression, which was
particularly marked when provoked.
Brunner tested the urine of the men in the family: the 5 men tested with the defective gene had higher levels of
chemicals that result from neurotransmitters. This indicates that the men’s MAO-A was deficient because they had
not released enough of it to break down the neurotransmitters, hence the excess levels of the chemicals resulting
from neurotransmitters in their urine.
This supports the role of the MAO-A gene in aggression because…..
Vishnivetskaya et al (2007) studied mice that lacked an MAO-A gene (these were called the Tg8 mice) and
compared them to a control group of mice who had the gene. The Tg8 mice showed increased aggression towards
intruder mice and increased territorial aggression, predatory aggression, and isolation induced aggression. However,
the Tg8 mice did not show an increase in all types of aggression; for instance, they were not more aggressive to
anesthetized or juvenile male mice.
What does this suggest about the role of the MAO-A gene in aggression?
Caspi et al (2002) studied 500 male children, those with low levels of MAOA were significantly more likely to grow up
to exhibit anti-social behaviour but only if they had been maltreated as children. Children with high levels of MAOA
who were maltreated and those with low levels who had not been maltreated, did not display anti-social behaviour.
What does this suggest about the role of the MAO-A gene in aggression?
Evaluation of research into the MAO-A gene:
Comment on the validity and/or reliability of the research evidence for this topic.
Wider evaluation for genetic explanations
Consider the following questions:

It is difficult to determine exactly how much genetics contribute to aggressive behaviour, can you think of
the reasons why this is the case?

What potential practical applications could there be for these genetic explanations?
Evolution and human aggression
Evolutionary explanations of human aggression, including
infidelity and jealousy:
Evolutionary explanations of human aggression propose that aggression is adaptive (aids survival and increases
chances of reproductive success). This includes acquiring and protecting resources such as food, territory and mates,
and status within the group, especially for males. High status then leads to greater access to resources in general and
to mates in particular. Therefore aggression is an advantageous characteristic that can be genetically inherited.
Infidelity and jealousy
For males, it is in their interest (in terms of evolution) to mate with as many females as possible. However, since
females are fussy, males have to compete to be chosen and aggression may be part of this. Females may well favour
males who show that they are strong and capable of defeating others, since, in evolutionary terms, this means they
will provide her child with good quality genes. So this may account for why males are generally more aggressive than
females.
Evolution can also account for feelings of jealousy but the precise form that this jealousy takes is different for males
and females. Females are certain that they are the mother of a child and therefore they are not at risk of wasting
valuable resources in raising children who are not their own. Males, on the other hand, have no such certainty which
could potentially result in them spending their resources raising children who are not biologically theirs.
With this in mind, males are therefore more likely to be jealous of imagined or actual sexual infidelity. It is suggested
that in order to prevent their mate from being unfaithful, they may adopt mate retention strategies; these can range
from direct guarding to violence. Consequently this could help to account for some aggressive behaviour in men
both towards their partner (if they think she might be unfaithful) and towards any potential rivals.
A woman, on the other hand, needs a man to be committed to her in order that she has the necessary resources to
raise her children. She is more likely to be jealous of any emotional feelings he has towards other women as this
presents a danger that he will leave her for another woman. This may lead her to show aggression towards any
women whom she perceives as being a rival for her partner’s affections. The theory argues that she will not be as
concerned with her partner having sex with another woman as long as he remains with her and devotes his
resources to her.
Can you think of any examples of mate-retention strategies?
Evaluation of the evolutionary explanations of human aggression
IDA point relevant to this topic:
A: Evolutionary approach
Write a comment on the potential strengths and/or weaknesses of using this approach to explain human aggression
and explain what impact these have on our understanding.
Research evidence
Buss looked at 37 cultures. It was found that males consistently valued chastity (not having sex with anyone else)
and faithfulness (in an emotional sense), whilst women were found to value faithfulness more. Females found
emotional infidelity more distressing than sexual infidelity, whilst males found sexual infidelity more distressing
This provides partial support for the evolutionary explanations of aggression. Explain why.
Wilson et al (1995) found using a questionnaire that women who indicated that their partners were jealous and
did not like them talking to other men were twice as likely to have experienced violence from their partners
How does this evidence support the infidelity and jealousy explanation of aggression?
Miller (1980) studied 44 female victims of domestic violence in Canada who were living in a women’s hostel, owing
to their male partners’ violence towards them. 55% of the women stated jealousy as the reason for their partners’
violence. 25% of the women stated their own infidelity as the reason for the aggression. Some women reported that
their husbands disliked them going out with friends and some husbands would not let their wives go shopping
without them.
How does this evidence support the infidelity and jealousy explanation of aggression?
Shackleton (2005) found a positive correlation between men who used mate retention techniques of direct
guarding and negative inducements and their use of violence. Men also tended to use emotional manipulation as a
mate retention technique. The women’s results confirmed this as there was also a positive correlation between
those that had jealous partners and being the victims of violence
How does this evidence support the infidelity and jealousy explanation of aggression?
Evaluation of research:
Comment on the validity and/or reliability of the research evidence for this topic.
Wider evaluation
Consider the following questions:

What practical applications could apply here (hint: think about mate-retention strategies)

What could be considered an overall strength of this explanation of aggression?

What could be considered an overall weakness of this explanation of aggression?
Evolutionary explanations of group display in humans:
“Group display” refers to displays of aggressive behaviour by groups that are gathered together for the
specific purpose of behaving aggressively. The two examples of group display we will be looking at is ‘Warfare’ and
‘Sport’
Warfare

While aggressive display can cost a person their life, by joining a group and taking part in a war there is
a greater chance of survival compared to the individual acting alone.

Groups are more powerful and can offer more protection, hence group display is adaptive.

Success in war can give better access to resources, higher status and ultimately a greater chance of
reproducing.

Since those who win wars are the most aggressive, these are the people who have passed on their
genes, leading to a species that have had aggression selected into their behaviour.

During war and armed conflict, rape is frequently occurs. War rape is often systematic and widespread,
and military leaders may actually encourage their soldiers to rape civilians of the opposing side. It could
be argued that rape of the enemy is adaptive because it allows the rapist to reproduce and at the same
time have dominance over the enemy.
Evaluation
IDA point relevant to this topic:
A: Evolutionary approach
Write a comment on the potential strengths and/or weaknesses of using this approach to explain warfare and
explain what impact these have on our understanding.
Research evidence
Chagnon (1968) states that there was constant fighting between the branches of the Yanomamo people in the
Amazon concerning access to women or raising the status of one group over another. Successful warriors of the
Yanomamo have more wives and more children than those who are less successful in battle.
How does this evidence provide support the evolutionary explanation?
Systematic rape of women often occurs in war. In the Bosnian war (1990s) it is estimated that 50 000 Muslim
women and girls were raped by Serbians. One aim of this was that the women would be terrorised so would flee
their land; another aim was to ensure that the children had Serbian blood.
How does this evidence provide support for the evolutionary explanation?
Evaluation of research:
Comment on the validity and/or reliability of the research evidence for this topic.
Wider evaluation
Consider the following questions:

Are there any other theories that could explain the aggression displayed in warfare better than the
evolutionary theory? Think about the strength of the evidence from other approaches e.g. social, biological
etc.

Why could this explanation of warfare be considered socially sensitive?
Sport
Some psychologists claim that in modern society, group display in terms of war has been replaced by group display in
terms of sporting events. In this ritualised form of aggression all the benefits of aggression are available to
competitors but with reduced risk of physical harm or death, so it is adaptive behaviour.
In modern society the winning team will be seen as holding high status and making the individual members of the
team desirable as mates. Often the aggression shown in the sporting event will be similar to hunting in that
athleticism and strength are required, so the competitor is advertising their skill as a potential provider
Victory in matches brings status not only to the players but also the fans.
The theory suggests that football hooliganism is the human equivalent of ceremonial conflict that occurs in animals:
the hooligans are exclusively males who are involved in trials of strength over territory but who are also restrained
by the desire to minimize physical harm and death. Power and status are gained but survival is intact.
Evaluation
IDA point relevant to this topic:
A: Evolutionary approach
Write a comment on the potential strengths and/or weaknesses of using this approach to explain aggression in sport
and explain what impact these have on our understanding.
Research evidence
Cialdini et al (1976) found that after a university football match that their team had won, more students wore
clothes that identified them as belonging to that university, hence enhancing their status. If their team won, students
were more likely to use the pronoun “we” when referring to the team, but if the team lost they used phrases such
as “they lost”.
This evidence supports the evolutionary explanation for group display because…..
Marsh (1978) observed that football fans may appear ultra violent, but on the whole the displayed violence does
not become physical.
This evidence supports the evolutionary explanation for group display because…..
Evaluation of research:
Comment on the validity and/or reliability of the research evidence for this topic.
Wider evaluation
Consider the following questions:

Can other approaches explain aggressive behaviour at sporting events?

Can the theory help us reduce negative aspects of group display such as hooliganism?
Past Questions on Aggression
January 2010
Discuss explanations of institutional aggression.
(24 marks)
June 2010
1) Outline the role of genetic factors in aggression
(4 marks)
2) Outline and evaluate one social psychological theory of aggression.
(4 marks+16 marks)
January 2011
Discuss evolutionary explanations of human aggression.
(8 marks + 16 marks)
June 2011
Discuss the role of neural and/or hormonal mechanisms in aggression. (8 marks+ 16 marks)
January 2012
1) Outline research into institutional aggression.
(4 marks)
2) Discuss one or more evolutionary explanations of group display in humans.
(4 marks+16 marks)
June 2012
Outline and evaluate one or more social psychological theories of aggression.
(8 marks+ 16 marks)
January 2013
Discuss evolutionary explanations of human aggression, including infidelity and/or
jealousy.
(8 marks + 16 marks)
June 2013
1. Outline an evolutionary explanation of one example of group display in humans (4 marks)
2. Discuss genetic factors involved in aggressive behaviour
(4 +16 marks)
June 2014
1. Outline neural and/or hormonal mechanisms in aggression. [4 marks]
2. Outline and evaluate one social psychological theory of aggression.[4 + 16 marks]