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IMPACT 201 Innovative Minds Partnering to Advance Curative Therapies Cover Page and Checklist This form must be completed and returned with the IMPACT submission to ensure full review Contributors Student Name Major Academic Year Email Address Kwame Opoku Bio-Medical Sciences Senior KwameAkyeampong opoku.akyeampong@m nsu.edu Okhumhekho A. Kassim Bio-Medical Sciences Junior Okhumhekho.kassim@ mnsu.edu Ali Oku Bio-Medical Sciences Junior [email protected] Uyi Imasuen Bio-Medical Sciences Junior [email protected] u Faculty Sponsor Department Email Address Mailing Address Dr. Penny Knoblich Biology penny.knoblich@ Minnesota State mnsu.edu University Department of Biological Sciences S242 Trafton Science Center South Mankato ,MN 56001 Submission Information IMPACT Question: What is the underlying cause of hypoplastic left heart syndrome (HLHS)?Hypothesis: During critical periods of heart development, abnormal activity of the myocyte enhancer factor 2C (MEF2C) as a result of irregular Notch signaling , folic acid levels, and/or genetic mutations is the underlying cause of HLHS Background Information: In trying to uncover the underlying cause of hypoplastic left heart syndrome (HLHS), we found that a great deal of information from research has become available ever since the discovery of the disease in 1952 [5]. Despite the amount of research that has been done on HLHS, the cause still remains unknown. This is a concern because HLHS is a complex heart disease that affects 1 out of every 4,344 babies in the US every year [4]. There are many surgical procedures and treatments that have improved the prognosis of HLHS, but HLHS patients still undergo later complications in life. HLHS has been linked to various chromosomal disorders including Turner syndrome, Jacobsen syndrome, and Trisomies 10, 11, & 13 [2]. There have also been links between maternal levels of folic acid during pregnancy and congenital heart disease [6].However, understanding the origin of the disease could result in disease prevention. The large array of phenotypes that can be seen in individuals with HLHS complicates the identification of a cause. In an article by Cambridge Press, the histopathology and pathogenesis of HLHS was extensively reviewed. The review examined the wide array of phenotypic expression associated with the disease. Phenotypes ranged from isolated to multiple combinations of cardiovascular malformations including ventricular, vascular, septal, valvular, and other defects. It was concluded that because there were many different phenotypic expressions of HLHS, that there must be a concert of factors working together to cause HLHS as opposed to just a single factor [2]. The vast array of genetic mutations and copy number variants linked to this disease, in addition to the differing number of phenotypes observed, has led us to believe the variants converge on a general signaling/regulatory pathway. There is a plethora of transcription factors, signaling pathways, and genes that appear a necessity in left and right heart formation. These include; HAND1, HAND2, NKX2.5, MEF2C, and Notch 1. HAND 1 and HAND 2 are two basic helix loop transcription factors that are especially important in heart looping, creating the left and right axis of the heart. One regulatory pathway that is crucial in cardiac development is the Notch signaling cascade. Notch signaling is crucial for early cell differentiation in various organ systems. The Notch receptors and ligands can be regulated by a multitude of different factors. One such factor that will be discussed is folic acid levels [6]. Folic acid has also been shown to significantly reduce congenital defects in children. In zebrafish, it has been shown that a competitor molecule, methotrexate (MTX), diminishes production of tetrahydrofolic acid. This results in decreased transcription levels of HAND 2 and MEF2C, and abnormal heart formation. These findings led us to our hypothesis. Hypothesis and Rationale: The hypothesis we reached was: “During critical periods of heart development, abnormal activity of the myocyte enhancer factor 2C (MEF2C) as a result of irregular Notch signaling , folic acid levels, and/or genetic mutations is the underlying cause of HLHS.” Knowing that a plethora of syndromes and diseases can be seen in some individuals with HLHS we concluded that one of the more general transcription factors must be the causative agent of this disease. In a study using disease specific induced pluripotent stem cells (HLHS-IPS) and normal bi-ventricle stem cells, gene expression and cardiomyogenic differentiation potential was compared. In HLHS-IPS there was a decrease in differentiation potential and gene expression of Hand1, Hand2, Tbx2, NKX2-5 and a decrease in Notch/Hey1 signaling. [9]. Our research team decided to look for a possible factor that could affect these different genes/TF. MEF2C is part of the MEF2 family of transcription factors that has a vital role in regulating gene expression in tissues such as the heart [1]. We believe that the malfunctioning of this regulator is responsible for the decreased expression levels and epigenetic modifications shown in HLHS-IPS. We proceeded to predict what factors could result in the improper functioning of MEF2C activity. In the diagram below, one of the important receptors that bind to MEF2C is Notch-1. It has been shown that Notch1 signaling affects the myogenic activity of MEF2C and the activity of other Basic HelixLoop-Helix (BHLH) transcription factors. Wilson-Rawls and colleagues [14] reported that Notch inhibits myogenesis by inactivating MEF2C. Notch is a regulatory signaling pathway with many receptors [14]. Mutations in the Notch1 receptor has been strongly linked to the onset of HLHS [13]. In various articles, it has been reported that HLHS was more prevalent in males than females [10,2,14]. This is relevant because recent studies have demonstrated a paternally inherited mutation in the gene for Notch signaling [13]. One study suggested that this mutation, in addition to diminished myogenic capability, could possibly explain the onset of HLHS. The diminished myogenic activity may be the result of notch1 effect on MEF2C [14]. MEF2C binding activity also interacts strongly with an AT-rich sequence of muscle promoters, which plays specific roles in cardiac muscle structure and enables maximum activity interaction [1]. Decreased myogenic capability can explain the underdevelopment of tissue on the left side of the heart. MEF2C also controls) metalloproteinase -2 (mmp2), which is important in cytoskeleton remodeling and insuring the left dorsal side of the heart grows faster than the right. In our explanation, if MEF2C is significantly affected by any of the aforementioned pathways, then the proliferation of the left side might not occur properly. Another phenotype which is the overgrowing of endocardial cushions and improper valve formation may also be a result of this improper mmp2 activity. [6]. Early on in fetal development, folic acid is a key player in ensuring proper cell differentiation and proliferation. There have been numerous studies linking folic acid deficiencies during fetal development to various heart malformations. Additionally, Folic acid has also been shown to increase notch activity [11]. Folic acid deficiency negatively influences notch signaling by decreasing the production of Notch 1 and Hes 1. Notch 1, a surface cell protein, together with Hes 1, an effector cell, are critical in proper notch signaling [11]. Therefore, irregular activity of the notch signaling system as a result of insufficient levels of folic acids during fetal development could lead to HLHS by affecting the production of MEF2C as discussed above. Additionally it is important to note that folic acid deficiencies have also been directly connected to the activity of Hand 1, Flk 1 and VEGF which are important parts of the development of a fetal heart [6]. This hypothesis is further supported with the recorded large incident of HLHS in Maryland associated with solvents and polychlorinated biphenyls released from industrial factories into the air. [10]. In the study, trichloroethylene was among the major compounds found in most of the implicated solvents. Studies have also shown that trichloroethylene could cause folate deficiencies in mammals [3]. This relationship between trichloroethylene and folate deficiency together with the observed incident of HLHS in Baltimore strongly suggests a connection between folate deficiencies and HLHS. Significance and Innovation: The significance and innovation of out proposed hypothesis comes from our focus on genetics. The expression of MEF2C and Notch 1 receptors for Notch signaling depends heavily on the unaltered presence of the genes coding for them. We believe that there could be mutations such as; deletions, mutations, or translocations that could be the culprit for the mutations to these genes. The mutations on the MEF2C and Notch 1 receptor gene would have to be mutations that negatively alter them; either decreasing the concentration or functionality. In the medical field, our hypothesis can primarily change the diagnosis of HLHS. Because we have linked genetic disorders specifically (errors in nucleotide sequences) to the MEF2C transcription factor and the Notch 1 receptors, it is possible to begin using embryonic genetic testing to uncover mutations that can lead to HLHS. The concentrations of mediators necessary for cardiac development could be closely and continuously monitored through amniotic fluid analysis and fetal biopsy. By noting changes in the concentrations of these substances that are similar to HLHS patients, healthcare workers can have more assurance when making their diagnosis. This hypothesis is suitable for testing with regenerative medical techniques and tools surrounding genetics. Testing this hypothesis would require the development of knockouts of the MEF2C and/or Notch 1 receptor gene, which could be done using siRNA in different embryonic hearts cells at different times. Researchers at the University of California have been able to grow tiny human beating hearts from reprogrammed skin derived stem cells. These hearts could be used to test the effects of our knockout or knockdown on heart development [12]. In addition, another study could be conducting in which folic acid administered to each heart is varied during the course of development. Through doing this, it can be observed as to whether or not ventricular malformations or other HLHS associated malformations occur in relationship to the timing of the MEF2C and/or Notch 1 receptor genes knockdown or varied folic acid levels. Based on our results we would be able to support or reject our hypothesis that specifically implicates the MEF2C gene as the main factor of the occurrence of HLHS. The CRISPR-Cas 9, a fairly new and recent genomic engineering tool, would be invaluable in this experiment. Cas9 is a protein that comes from a single RNA strand that is then cleaved into a smaller RNA strands known as crRNA which are found in many organisms. The crRNA is then translated into nucleolytic enzymes [7]. This tool would allow alteration of MEF2C gene, which is crucial to this experiment. If MEF2c is implicated as the main factor interfering with successful heart formation. This tool could be used to amend a germline cells with mutations in MEF2C or Notch-1. References: 1. 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Development and Applications of CRISPR-Cas9 for Genome Engineering. Cell, 157(6), 1262–1278. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2014.05.010 8. Jeffrey A. Feinstein, D. Woodrow Benson, Anne M. Dubin, Meryl S. Cohen, Dawn M. Maxey, William T. Mahle, Elfriede Pahl, Juan Villafañe, Ami B. Bhatt, Lynn F. Peng, Beth Ann Johnson, Alison L. Marsden, Curt J. Daniels, Nancy A. Rudd, Christopher A. Caldarone, Kathleen A. Mussatto, David L. Morales, D. Dunbar Ivy, J. William Gaynor, James S. Tweddell, Barbara J. Deal, Anke K. Furck, Geoffrey L. Rosenthal, Richard G. Ohye, Nancy S. Ghanayem, John P. Cheatham, Wayne Tworetzky, Gerard R. Martin, Hypoplastic Left Heart Syndrome: Current Considerations and Expectations, Journal of the American College of Cardiology, Volume 59, Issue 1, Supplement, 3 January 2012, Pages S1-S42, ISSN 0735-1097, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2011.09.022. 9. 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Theis, J.L., Hirstka, S.C.L., Evans, J.M., O’Byrne, M.M., Andrade, M., O’Leary, P.W., & Nelson, T.J. (2015). Compound heterozygous NOTCH1 mutations underlie impaired cardiogenesis in a patient with hypoplastic left heart syndrome. CrossMark. Hum Genet 134:1003–1011. doi:10.1007/s00439-015-1582-1 14. Wilson-Rawls, J., Molkentin, J. D., Black, B,L,. & Olson, N. E. (1998). Activated notch inhibits myogenic activity of the MADS-box transcription factor myocyte enhancer factor 2c. Molecular and Cellular Biology, 19 (4). Retrieved from http://mcb.asm.org/content/19/4/2853.short.