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The Nature and Nurture of Behavior CHAPTER 3 WHAT THIS CHAPTER IS! • NATURE • Our biological blueprint • Evolutionary Psychology: – natural selection • • • • Sexuality Behavior Genetics: is it nature or is it nurture? Eugenics Twin studies, adoption studies, temperament, heritability • Gene-environment interaction • The new frontier: molecular genetics NURTURE • Environmental influence • How much credit or blame do your parents deserve? • The prenatal environment • Experience and brain development • Peer influence • Cultural influence Chromosomes • Rod shaped structures found in the center of the nucleus of every cell in the body. • Each sperm and each ovum (egg cell) contains 23 chromosomes. • The chromosomes contain the genes. • The fertilized egg (zygote) and all the body cells that develop from it (except the sperm cells and the ova) contain 46 chromosomes. Karyotype A photograph of a cell’s chromosomes arranged in pairs according to size http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/begin/traits/karyotype/ Genes • The basic unit of genetic information • A gene is a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a specific protein – They determine the nature and the function of the cell. – Made up of nucleotides (A, T, C, & G) • The human genes (about 140,000) are referred to as the human genome. • A genome is the full set of genes in each cell of an organism that is made of a sequence of nucleotides organized as coiled chains of DNA Genotype Phenotype The genetic makeup of The traits that are a given individual expressed in the individual Recessive Gene The gene pair that determines a trait in an individual only if the other member of that pair is also recessive Dominant Gene One gene of a gene pair that will cause a particular trait to be expressed DNA deoxyribonucleic acid • The substance that genes are composed of that determines the nature of each cell the body and how it will function. • At each level of the spiral or rungs of the ladder are particular chemical pairs, “double helix.” The arrangement of these pairs along the DNA molecule determines which kind of proteins that will be formed in the cell and determine our physical development. 3.1 billion letters within human DNA Universal Behaviors: Evolutionary Psychology Evolutionary Psychology • The study of the evolution of behavior and the mind using principles of natural selection… adaptive qualities which have helped us survive and spread our genes Natural Selection • The traits that contribute to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations. • Finding one’s ecological niche David Buss and the International Team (1994) • 50 scientists studied: 10,047 people in 37 countries in 6 continents • Men preferred women thought to be youthful & healthy • Women preferred men who were mature, dominant, bold, & affluent Evolutionary Psychology: David Buss Research Continued Men preferred attractive physical features suggesting youth and health Women preferred resources and social status Human Sex Differences: Universal • • • • Males Promiscuous Undiscriminating Competitive and concerned about dominance • Prefer beauty and health • Like sexual novelty • • • • Females Devoted and faithful Cautious Less competitive • Prefer resources and social status • Like stability and security All Hands on Deck As a pair….read pgs. 106-107 & list some of the criticisms of the Evolutionary Psychology Perspective Innate Human Characteristics • Infant Reflexes • An Attraction to Novelty • A Desire to explore and manipulate objects • An Impulse to be playful and fool around • Basic arithmetic skills The Nature and Nurture of Gender Gender in psychology, the characteristics, whether biologically or socially influenced, by which people define male and female Testosterone the most important of the male sex hormones both males and females have it additional testosterone in males stimulates growth of male sex organs in the fetus development of male sex characteristics during puberty Role a set of expectations (norms) about a social position defining how those in the position ought to behave All Hands on Deck: Sexuality Textbook p. 103 & 104 Which Gender Has the Strongest Sex Drive? 1. Segall 1990 cross-cultural study 2. Jenish 1993 and Malamuth 1996 study 3. Sax 2001 study of American college students 4. Clark and Hatfield 1989 F.S.U. study 5. Abbey 1987 and Johnson 1991 study In early intrauterine development male and female external genitalia (visible sex organs) are identical. • Under the influence of the androgen dihydrotestosterone, the external genitalia develop in the male direction. In the absence of androgens female external genitalia develop. • Mutation A random error in gene replication that leads to a change in the sequence of nucleotides; the source of all genetic diversity. – May happen as a result of teratogens, which are substances that can cross the placental barrier and harm an unborn child • Sometimes female embryos are exposed to abnormally high levels of androgen before birth. A small number of genetic females are born with ambiguous external genitalia. The most common cause of female pseudohermaphroditism is congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH). • Cortisol is released into the blood stream from the adrenal gland, a small organ near the kidney. • a metabolic error causes overproduction of androgens (e.g. testosterone) in the adrenal gland. This androgen leads to partial masculinization of the external genitalia • Girls with classical CAH are born with masculine-appearing external genitals but with female internal sex organs. • His testicles were surgically removed and an artificial vagina created, as is done in sex-change operations. John became Joan. At 12, she was given estrogen therapy to complete the conversion to a woman. She grew breasts, but was never accepted by other girls, nor felt comfortable as a woman. Boy raised as girl discovers happiness as a man • In 1972 Money and Ehrhardt reported the case of a 7 month old baby boy - one of a pair of twins - born in 1963 whose penis was removed after an operation for circumcision damaged the child's penis. At 22 months old the child was surgically reassigned as a girl and brought up according to the prevailing view at the time that we are psychosexually neutral at birth. This case entered the textbooks and informed medical opinion for several decades. • At 14, she rebelled, confessing to her doctor: "I suspected I was a boy since the second grade." She was eventually given a mastectomy to remove the breasts and was given male hormones. At the age of 25, now John once more, he married a woman who already had children. The Nature and Nurture of Gender Social Learning Theory theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished Gender Schema Theory theory that children learn from their cultures a concept of what it means to be male and female and that they adjust their behavior accordingly The Nature and Nurture of Gender Gender Role a set of expected behaviors for males and females Ex. Boys not crying Gender Identity one’s sense of being male or female Gender-typing the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role The Nature and Nurture of Gender Two theories of gender typing The Nature and Nurture of Gender The Nature and Nurture of Gender Gender and Culture All Hands on Deck • Do men and women differ in their communication experiences? • Who talks the most? • Who interrupts? • What about gender patterns in formal group meetings? • What about gender patterns in informal group meetings? • Are gender differences in communication patterns related to power? Who talks the most? • In mixed-gender groups,at public gatherings, and in many informal conversations, men spend more time talking than do women. Who interrupts? • Men are more likely than women to interrupt • A study of faculty meetings : women are more likely than men to be interrupted. • Women, when they interrupt, are more likely to interrupt other women than they are to interrupt men, according to two studies. • Women do not resist interruptions as much as men do What about gender patterns in formal group meetings? • In meetings, men gain the "floor" more often & keep the floor for longer periods of time…regardless of their status in the organization. What are the gender patterns in informal group meetings? • In informal, collaborative meetings, women display a fuller range of language ability. What are some of the ways women are affected by these patterns? • Women are less likely to have confidence in their ability to make persuasive arguments. • Some women add to their own passive participation -- by allowing interruptions • Some women, when they do gain the "floor," talk too fast as though they know they are about to be interrupted. Are gender differences in communication patterns related to power? • When people are strangers, they expect less competence from women than from men. • Studies have found that talking time is related both to gender (because men spend more time talking than women) and to organizational power (because the more powerful spend more time talking than the less powerful). BODY LANGUAGE • Men take up more physical space when sitting or standing, with arms and legs stretched out away from their body • Women take up less physical space, sitting with arms and legs toward their body • Men gesture away from the body • Women gesture toward the body • Men assume more reclined positions when sitting and lean backward when listening • Women assume more forward positions when sitting and lean forward when listening • Men not as sensitive to the communication cues of others • Women have greater sensitivity and acuity toward other people's nonverbal communication cues (picture of boss) • Men tend to approach women more closely in terms of their personal space • Women do not approach men as closely in terms of their personal space FACIAL EXPRESSIONS • Men: cock their head to the side and look at the other person from an angle when listening • Women: look at the other person directly facing them with their head and eyes facing forward when listening • Men provide fewer facial expressions in feedback and fewer reactions • Women provide more facial expressions and more reactions • Men display frowning and squinting when listening • Women display smiling and head-nodding when listening • Men stare more in negative interaction • Women lower their eyes more to avert gaze in negative interaction GENDER DIFFERENCES • MEN, WOMEN, AND PUNCTUATION • An English professor wrote the words: • "Woman without her man is nothing" on the blackboard and directed the students to punctuate it correctly. • The men wrote: "Woman, without her man, is nothing." • The women wrote: "Woman! Without her, man is nothing." • UNDERSTANDING WOMEN (A MAN'S PERSPECTIVE) I know I'm not going to understand women. I'll never understand how you can take boiling hot wax, pour it onto your upper thigh, rip the hair out by the root, and still be afraid of a spider. Explaining Differences: Behavior Genetics Behavior Genetics • The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior - ex. effect on personality Environment every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us Language Acquisition Device Innate Mental Module Noam Chomsky • Children in different cultures go through similar stages of linguistic development. • Children combine words in ways adults never do. • Adults don’t consistently correct their children’s syntax. • Even children with an Intellectual Deficiency develop language. • Infants can derive simple linguistic rules. Where can I learn more about the genetics of different behavioral traits? • Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM) is a large, searchable, up-to-date database of human genes, genetic traits, and disorders. Each contains bibliographic references and a summary of the scientific literature describing what is known about a particular gene, trait, or disorder. The following behavioral traits are included in OMIM. • Hand skill, relative (handedness): (139900) • Hand clasping pattern: (139800) • Arm folding preference: (107850) • Ears, ability to move: (129100) • Tongue curling, folding, or rolling: (189300) • Musical perfect pitch: (159300) • Novelty seeking personality trait: (601696) • Stuttering: (184450) • Tobacco addiction: (188890) • Alcoholism: (103780) • Homosexuality: (306995) Genetic Research • Predicting individual differences • To determine the effects of heredity, behavior geneticists rely on two studies • Twin studies • Adoption studies Heritability: of any trait, the extent to which variation among individuals can be attributed to their differing genes Behavior Genetics Identical twins Fraternal twins Identical Twins develop from a single fertilized egg (by 1 sperm) that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms Fraternal Twins Same sex only Same or opposite sex develop from separate eggs with a separate sperm genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share the fetal environment Twin Studies 13,000 pairs of Swedish twins, 7000 Finnish twin pairs, 3810 Australian twin pairs Identical twins are more similar than fraternal twins on both extroversion & neuroticism Battery of questionnaires to 850 U.S. twins Identical twins are more similar in abilities, personality traits, & interests. Reported being treated alike Separated Twins • The Jim Twins Similar in: brain waves voice intonation interests heart rate personality intelligence • Gerald Levey and Mark Newman separated at birth, reunited at age 38 • Both volunteer firefighters Adoption Studies • People who grow up together, whether biologically related or not, do not much resemble one another in personality. • Adoptees’ traits bear more similarities to their biological parents than to their care-giving adoptive parents Temperament Studies Traits such as emotional excitability – whether the baby is intense, reactive, fidgety, easy going, or quiet tend to remain steady in later years Behavior Genetics Interaction the dependence of the effect of one factor (such as environment) on another factor (such as heredity) More like nature via nurture Molecular Genetics the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes The “Obese” Gene • Obese gene causes fat cells to produce leptin. • Leptin travels through blood to hypothalamus (regulates appetite) • Leptin reduces appetite Why Do People Gain Weight Rapidly? • Secretion of leptin is impaired • May produce plenty of leptin but their body does not respond to it. • Tendency to store calories which have a survival advantage. Alcoholism In 1990, psychiatrist Ernest Noble of UCLA and pharmacologist Kenneth Blum of the University of Texas find strong association between alcoholism and one version of a gene that makes the dopamine D2 receptor. this particular gene variation is called A1. In more than two-thirds of 35 deceased alcoholics, compared to just one-fifth of the same number of nonalcoholics. The gene builds a receptor on the surface of nerve cells that responds to dopamine, a chemical messenger in the brain's "pleasure center." Eugenics The science of improving the human species through restrictive or selective breeding Experiments on laboratory mice and farm animals have been used to develop theories about ways to abolish mental and social dysfunction by manipulating human reproduction. EUGENICS • Sperm banks • Sperm banks: medical facilities collect and store sperm. The use of cryopreserved or frozen, donor sperm is option for couples who have been unable to conceive • Anonymous ,undergo rigorous medical and genetic evaluation and testing prior to acceptance. • donor specimen carefully analyzed for adequate sperm count and mobility. • choose a particular donor from a catalog describing physical characteristics and ethnic background. • The donor specimen selected is released to the couple's physician for use in insemination or assisted reproduction. • males undergoing vasectomies, chemotherapy, other treatments which may alter future sperm production, sperm cryopreservation and storage facilities allow the possibility of conceiving children in the future. ABORTION • In 54 countries abortions are legal. • In 97 countries abortions are illegal. • There are 46 million abortions conducted each year, 20 million of them obtained illegally. There are 126,000 abortions conducted each day. • Approximately 1,370,000 abortions occur annually in the U.S. • In 2001, 1.31 million abortions took place. • 43% of women will have had at least one abortion by the time they are 45 years old. ABORTION AND EUGENICS • • • • • • • Trauma Rape Incest Handicap Mental retardation Physical deformities Down’s syndrome • • • • • Social Sex selection Unwanted children Economic Medical • To determine whether a nation is growing or dying, we must examine three factors: birth rate . . . death rate . . . immigration. • THE WEST IS DYING • Birth Rate: This is the ultimate determinant. In a developed nation the average woman must bear 2.1 children (Mean Fertility Rate) in order to maintain a level population. • In an undeveloped nation the rate must be 2.3 or more because of higher infant and child mortality. • Western World, birthrates have dropped below replacement level. • Europe’s population shift, in both the East and West: demographic vacuum into which are moving millions of Muslims and Arabs who have large families. • Religious shift: for the first time in history, there will be more Muslims in the world than Catholics. Due to contraception, sterilization, surgical abortion and abortifacient drugs. Population Projections • Normal population • Birth rate • Adolescence- young adult decline • Middle aged • Old age decline Future Projection • abnormal population • Lowered birth rate • Adolescence- young adult decline • Middle aged • Increased old age CLONING • 1952, the first animal, a tadpole, was cloned. • Dolly, the first mammal cloned from the cell of an adult animal, clones were created from embryonic cells. • Since Dolly, researchers have cloned a number of large and small animals including sheep, goats, cows, mice, pigs, cats, rabbits. 3 types of cloning technologies (1) Recombinant DNA technology or DNA cloning • The transfer of a DNA fragment of interest from one organism to a self-replicating genetic element such as a bacterial plasmid. (2) Reproductive cloning • Reproductive cloning is a technology used to generate an animal that has the same nuclear DNA as another currently or previously existing animal. (3) Therapeutic cloning. • Therapeutic cloning, “embryo cloning,” is the production of human embryos for use in research. • Organs cloned for use in transplants • therapeutic cloning can be used to generate tissues and organs for transplants. • DNA extracted from person in need of a transplant and inserted into an enucleated egg. • The stem cells would be used to generate an organ or tissue that is a genetic match to the recipient. • cloned organ could then be transplanted into the patient without the risk of tissue rejection. • the need for organ donation could be significantly reduced. CLONING RISKS • low success rates • cloned animals have more compromised immune function • Zerox copy • higher rates of infection, tumor growth, other disorders. • Japanese studies have shown cloned mice live in poor health and die early. • 1/3 of cloned calves born alive have died young -many were abnormally large. • Clones have not lived long enough to generate good data about how clones age. • No long-term survival. • Have been known to die mysteriously. Should Humans Be Cloned? Benefits: • military, health, entertainment, human services, death of loved one Disadvantages: • Population, the human “soul”, (employment), ethics Gene-Environment Interaction “Heredity deals the cards; environment plays the hand.” Psychologist Charles L. Brewer (1990) Genes? You decide! • • • • • This man celebrated his 113th birthday telling reporters at his home in southern Japan about his joyful life and healthy appetite. Holds the Guinness Book of World Records as the oldest living male. He eats mostly vegetables and believes the key to longevity is not drinking alcohol. He lives with his son, drinks milk every day and has no major illnesses, The Japanese are among the world's longest-lived people, with the number of those aged 100 or older at a record 36,276, shown from a government report ( 2008). Japanese women have topped the world's longevity ranks for 23 years, while men rank third after Iceland and Hong Kong. Environmental Influence • Prenatal Environment • Experience and Brain Development • Peer Influence • Culture • Gender Prenatal Care • Diet • The father’s involvement • Age of mother • Illness of mother • Drug use • Alcohol • Teratogens Experiences and Brain Development • Rosenzweig and Krech’s experiment on rats: – Those living in the enriched environment developed a thicker and heavier brain cortex, and thus more brain cells. – Experience preserves our activated connections Environmental Influence Experience affects brain development Impoverished environment Rat brain cell Enriched environment Rat brain cell Environmental Influence A trained brain Environmental Influences: Parents and Peers are Complementary Howard Gardner (1998) “Parents are more important when it comes to education, discipline, responsibility, orderliness. Charitableness, and ways of interacting with authority figures. Environmental Influences: Peers • Peers are more important for learning cooperation, for finding the road to popularity, for inventing styles of interaction among people of the same age. Youngsters may find their peers more interesting, but they will look to their parents when contemplating their own futures.” What Is the Role of Parenting? 1- Do parents really produce future adults with a wounded child within by being irresponsible? 2- Should we blame our parents for our failings? 3- Should we shame the parents of troubled children? 4- Should parents be given less credit for children who turn out great? 5- What is the role of parents? Environmental Influence: Culture • • • • • Cultural Universals Variation Across Cultures Variation Over Time Cultural Relativism Culture and Child Rearing - When to potty train - Walking/talking - Customs regarding family -adolescence Environmental Influence: Culture Culture the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next Norm an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior Mores: official rules of behavior sanctioned by law. Taboos: unthinkable acts VARIATION ACROSS CULTURES • • • • • Raising children Burying the dead Clothing styles Use of eating utensils Personal space CULTURE AND CHILD-REARING • Western cultures: individualism, independence, true to self, marry for love: evidenced by strollers, playpens, car seats, baby sitters • Asian and African cultures: communal, emotional closeness, children don’t have their own bedrooms, not sent to daycare, stronger sense of family self; what shames/honors family brings same to self: spend day with close personal contact; on mother’s back CULTURAL RELATIVISM • In order for behavior to be understood, it must be judged within the context in which it occurs; • Sporting events • Rock concerts • Self-defense • War • Religious practices Environmental Influence Personal Space the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies; 0-12 inches: personal, 12/18 inches-3ft: social, 3-6 feet: public Memes self-replicating ideas, fashions, and innovations passed from person to person VARIATION OVER TIME • Since 1960, most western cultures have changed with remarkable speed. Positive changes • The middle class fly on airplanes • Email instead of snail-mail • Air-conditioning for poor and middle class • On-line shopping • Cell phones • Double personal income • Eating out 2.5 more times than your parents did Negative changes since the 60’s • Doubled divorce rate • Teen suicide tripled • Quadrupled juvenile violent crime • Quintupled prison population • Highest depression rate in the world and rising • More hours at work/ less hours at home • Fewer hours sleeping • Less time for friends • Similar cultural changes for Britain, Canada, Australia, New Zealand What causes change over time? • Events can affect fashion short/long skirts • Inventions: microwave ovens • Memes self-replicating ideas, fashions, and innovations passed from person to person Like genes, memes compete to get copied not into our cells but into our memories Memes can be • True or positive: arithmetic, Abe Lincoln, Bach’s music • Neutral: new pronunciations • False: myths, alien abductions Culture’s Impact • A unified culture is like bicycling with the wind. You hardly notice it’s there • When we try riding against the wind; we feel it’s force! “Genes, by themselves, are like seeds dropped onto pavement: powerless to produce anything” 1. A genetically programmed action pattern is the ethologist’s definition of: (a) habit (b) instinct (c) adaptation (d) altruism (e) releasing merchandise 2. The result of the evolutionary process that preserves traits that enhance the adaptation of an organism and suppresses traits that do not is called: (a) Habituation (b) Accommodation (c) Natural selection (d) Eugenics (e) Species assimilation 3. One's personal, private sense of maleness or femaleness is known as A. genital identification. B. sexual scripting. C. gender identity. D. sex role perception. 4. The observable traits, mannerisms, interests, and behaviors defined by one's culture as "male" or "female" are one's A. gender identity. B. gender role. C. genetic sex. D. biological bias. 5.The favored pattern of behavior expected of each sex is called A. gender identity. B. sexual identity. C. gender role. D. biological sex. 6. Sperm is to cell as DNA is to: a. nucleotide b. gene c. chromosome d. molecule 7. Which of the following is a major source of genetic diversity? a. Cloning b. gender schemas c. mutations d. memes 8. Men judge women as especially attractive if they appear______and women judge men as especially attractive if they appear______. a. mature; mature b. youthful; youthful c. mature; youthful d. youthful; mature 9. The study of the relative power of genetic and environmental influences on behavior and personality traits is known as: a. molecular genetics b. evolutionary psychology c. behavior genetics d. human cloning 10. An infant’s temperament refers most directly to its: a. ability to learn b. physical attractiveness c. temperament d. physical health