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Endocrine System
Overview of the Endocrine System
Hormones
Mechanisms of Hormone Action
Hormone Interactions
Hormone Secretion Control
Endocrine System
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Endocrine System
(continued)
Endocrine Glands
The Pituitary Gland
The Thyroid Gland
The Parathyroid Glands
The Adrenal (Suprarenal) Glands
Endocrine System
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Endocrine System
(continued)
The Pancreas
Other Endocrine Tissues and Organs
Stress
Endocrine System
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Endocrine System > Overview of the Endocrine System
Overview of the Endocrine System
• Overview of the Endocrine System
• Comparing the Nervous and Endocrine Systems
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Endocrine System > Hormones
Hormones
• Mechanisms of Hormone Action
• Hormone Receptors
• Chemistry of Hormones
• Transport of Hormones
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Endocrine System > Mechanisms of Hormone Action
Mechanisms of Hormone Action
• Direct Gene Activation and the Second-Messenger System
• Target Cell Specificity
• Onset, Duration, and Half-Life of Hormone Activity
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Endocrine System > Hormone Interactions
Hormone Interactions
• Interactions of Hormones at Target Cells
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Endocrine System > Hormone Secretion Control
Hormone Secretion Control
• Control of Hormone Secretion
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Endocrine System > Endocrine Glands
Endocrine Glands
• Overview of Endocrine Glands
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Endocrine System > The Pituitary Gland
The Pituitary Gland
• Overview of the Pituitary Gland
• Control of the Pituitary Gland by the Hypothalamus
• The Anterior Pituitary
• The Posterior Pituitary
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Endocrine System > The Thyroid Gland
The Thyroid Gland
• Overview of the Thyroid Gland
• Formation, Storage, and Release of Thyroid Hormones
• Action of Thyroid Hormones
• Control of Thyroid Hormone Release
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Endocrine System > The Parathyroid Glands
The Parathyroid Glands
• Overview of the Parathyroid Glands
• Parathyroid Hormone
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Endocrine System > The Adrenal (Suprarenal) Glands
The Adrenal (Suprarenal) Glands
• Overview of the Adrenal Glands
• Adrenal Cortex
• Adrenal Medulla
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Endocrine System > The Pancreas
The Pancreas
• Overview of Pancreatic Islets
• Types of Cells in the Pancreas
• Insulin Secretion and Regulation of Glucagon
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Endocrine System > Other Endocrine Tissues and Organs
Other Endocrine Tissues and Organs
• Eicosanoids
• Growth Factors
• Other Hormone-Producing Structures
• Male and Female Gonads
• Placenta
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Endocrine System > Stress
Stress
• The Stress Response
• The Fight-or-Flight Response
• The Resistance Reaction
• Exhaustion
• Stress and Disease
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Appendix
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Endocrine System
Key terms
• adrenal cortex The outer portion of the adrenal glands that produces hormones essential to homeostasis.
• adrenal cortex The outer portion of the adrenal glands that produces hormones essential to homeostasis.
• adrenal cortex The outer portion of the adrenal glands that produces mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and androgens.
• adrenal gland This gland is responsible for releasing hormones in response to stress through the synthesis of corticosteroids,
such as cortisol and catecholamines (epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine), as well as the production of androgens.
• Adrenal medulla The innermost part of the adrenal gland, consisting of cells that secrete adrenaline and noradrenaline.
• adrenaline Also known as epinephrine it is a key hormone in the fight-or-flight response.
• antagonism When a substance binds to the same site an agonist would bind to without causing activation of the receptor.
• anterior pituitary gland A major organ of the endocrine system that regulates several physiological processes including stress,
growth, reproduction, and lactation.
• Antidiuretic hormone A hormone that stimulates water re-absorption in the kidneys.
• bone remodeling The resorption by osteoclasts and replacement by osteoblasts in bones.
• calcitonin A hormone that is produced primarily by the parafollicular cells of the thyroid. It acts to reduce blood calcium (Ca2+),
opposing the effects of parathyroid hormone.
• catecholamine Any of a class of hormones produced by the adrenal gland.
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Endocrine System
• chromaffin The cells of the adrenal medulla that secrete adrenaline and noradrenaline in response to nervous stimulation.
• decompensation The inability of a diseased or weakened organic system or organ to compensate for its deficiency, which then
results in functional deterioration.
• endocrine Produces internal secretions that are transported around the body by the bloodstream.
• endocrine system The system of ductless glands that secretes hormones directly into the circulatory system.
• essential fatty acid Any fatty acid required for the human metabolism that cannot be synthesized by the body and that must be
present in the diet; it was originally designated as vitamin F.
• exocrine Produces external secretions that are released through a duct.
• general adaptation syndrome This describes how a body reacts to a stressor, real or imagined, in the short term and long term.
• glucagon A hormone, produced by the pancreas, that opposes the action of insulin by stimulating the production of sugar.
• glucagon A hormone, produced by the pancreas, that opposes the action of insulin by stimulating the production of sugar.
• glycogen A polysaccharide that is the main form of carbohydrate storage in animals and also converts to glucose as needed.
• gonad A sex organ that produces gametes; specifically, the testes or ovaries.
• half-life The time it takes for a substance (drug, radioactive nuclide, or other) to lose half of its pharmacological, physiological,
or radiological activity.
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Endocrine System
• hormone A molecule released by a cell or a gland in one part of the body that sends out messages affecting cells in other parts
of the organism.
• hormone A molecule released by a cell or a gland in one part of the body that sends out messages affecting cells in other parts
of the organism.
• hormone A molecule released by a cell or a gland in one part of the body that sends out messages affecting cells in other parts
of the organism.
• hormone receptor A molecule that binds to a specific hormone that triggers alterations in cell activity.
• hormone response element A short sequence of DNA within the promoter of a gene that is able to bind a specific hormone
receptor complex and therefore regulate gene expression.
• human chorionic gonadotropin A hormone produced during pregnancy that is made by the developing placenta after
conception, and later by the placental component.
• hypophyseal portal system The system of blood vessels that link the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary in the brain.
• hypothalamus A region of the forebrain located below the thalamus, forming the basal portion of the diencephalon, that
regulates body temperature, some metabolic processes, and governs the autonomic nervous system.
• hypothalamus A region of the forebrain located below the thalamus, forming the basal portion of the diencephalon, and
functioning to regulate body temperature, some metabolic processes, and governing the autonomic nervous system.
• insulin A polypeptide hormone that regulates carbohydrate metabolism.
• insulin A polypeptide hormone that regulates carbohydrate metabolism.
• Lipid-soluble hormone A lipophilic hormone that passes through the plasma membrane of a cell, binds to an intracellular
receptor, and changes gene expression.
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Endocrine System
• negative feedback A system that prevents deviation from a mean value.
• neurotransmitters Endogenous chemicals that transmit signals from a neuron to a target cell across a synapse.
• noradrenaline Also known as norepinephrine, it is a key hormone in the fight-or-flight response.
• nuclear receptor A class of proteins found within cells that are responsible for sensing steroid and thyroid hormones and certain
other molecules, as well as to influence gene expression upon activation.
• omega-3 Fatty acids (also called ω3 fatty acids or n−3 fatty acids) that are commonly found in marine and plant oils.
• omega-6 Fatty acids (also called ω6 fatty acids or n−6 fatty acids) that are commonly found in poultry and plant oils.
• osteoclast A large multinuclear cell associated with the break down and resorption of bone.
• ovaries The female gonads responsible for the production of ova and the secretion of the key hormones estrogen and
progesterone.
• oxytocin A hormone that stimulates contractions during labor.
• paracrine Describes a hormone or other secretion released from endocrine cells into the surrounding tissue rather than into the
bloodstream.
• parathyroid gland One of four endocrine glands situated in the neck, usually on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland, that
produce parathyroid hormone.
• parathyroid hormone A hormone produced by the parathyroid gland that acts to increase blood calcium levels by stimulating
osteoclasts to release calcium from the bone.
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Endocrine System
• permissiveness A certain relationship between hormones and the target cell when the presence of one hormone, at a certain
concentration, is required in order to allow a second hormone to fully affect the target cell.
• pituitary gland An endocrine gland, about the size of a pea, that sits in a small, bony cavity at the base of the brain whose
secretions control the other endocrine glands and influence growth, metabolism, and maturation.
• pituitary gland An endocrine gland, about the size of a pea, that sits in a small, bony cavity at the base of the brain whose
secretions control the other endocrine glands and influence growth, metabolism, and maturation.
• placenta A vascular organ present only in the female during gestation. It supplies food and oxygen from the mother to the fetus,
and passes back waste. It is implanted in the wall of the uterus and links to the fetus through the umbilical cord. It is expelled
after birth.
• positive feedback A system that promotes deviation from a mean value.
• post-traumatic stress disorder A serious condition that develops following an intensely stressful situation or event.
• posterior pituitary The posterior pituitary (or neurohypophysis) comprises the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland and is part of
the endocrine system. Despite its name, the posterior pituitary gland is not a true gland; rather, it is largely a collection of
axonal projections from the hypothalamus that terminate behind the anterior pituitary gland.
• secondary messenger Molecules that relay signals from receptors on the cell surface to target molecules inside the cell, in the
cytoplasm or nucleus.
• secondary messenger These are molecules that relay signals from receptors on the cell surface to target molecules inside the
cell, in the cytoplasm, or the nucleus.
• somatostatin A polypeptide hormone, secreted by the pancreas, that inhibits the production of certain other hormones.
• synergism Two or more things functioning together to produce a result not independently obtainable.
• target cell A cell that is receptive to a secreted hormone.
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Endocrine System
• testes The male gonads responsible for the production of sperm and the secretion of testosterone.
• thyroid One of the largest endocrine glands, it is responsible for the secretion of thyroxine which controls how quickly the body
uses energy, makes proteins, and is sensitive to other hormones.
• thyroid-stimulating hormone A hormone that stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroxine (T4), and then triiodothyronine
(T3), which stimulates the metabolism of almost every tissue in the body.
• thyroid-stimulating hormone Also known as TSH or thyrotropin, this is a hormone that stimulates the thyroid gland to produce
thyroxine (T4), and then triiodothyronine (T3), which stimulates the metabolism of almost every tissue in the body. It is a
glycoprotein hormone, synthesized and secreted by thyrotrope cells in the anterior pituitary gland, that regulates the endocrine
function of the thyroid gland.
• thyroid-stimulating hormone A hormone released from the anterior pituitary gland that stimulates the release of thyorid
hormones.
• thyrotropin-releasing hormone A hormone released from the hypothalamus that stimulates thyroid-stimulating hormone
production from the anterior pituitary gland.
• thyroxine A hormone (an iodine derivative of tyrosine), produced by the thyroid gland, that regulates cell metabolism and
growth.
• thyroxine A thyroid hormone also known as T4, thought to be a pro-hormone and a reservoir for T3.
• thyroxine A hormone (an iodine derivative of tyrosine) produced by the thyroid gland that regulates cell metabolism and growth.
• transport protein A protein that binds with a hormone in systemic circulation that facilitates its efficient transport.
• triiodothyronine A thyroid hormone also known as T3 that plays a key role in many physiological processes and is the much
more active than T4.
• umbilical cord The flexible structure connecting a fetus with the placenta that transports nourishment to the fetus and removes
waste.
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Endocrine System
• vitamin D A fat-soluble vitamin required for normal bone development and that prevents rickets; it can be manufactured in the
skin on exposure to sunlight.
• Water-soluble hormone A lipophobic hormone that binds to a receptor on, or within, the plasma membrane, to initiate an
intracellular signaling cascade.
• zona fasciculata The middle layer of the adrenal cortex, responsible for producing glucocorticoids such as cortisol.
• zona glomerulosa The outermost layer of the adrenal cortex, responsible for producing mineralocorticoids such as aldosterone.
• zona reticularis The inner most layer of the adrenal cortex, responsible for producing androgens such as DHEA.
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Endocrine System
Testicles
Diagram of male (human) testicles.
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Endocrine System
Pituitary
Pituitary gland representation.
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Endocrine System
Glucagon staining
This is an image from a microscope stained for glucagon.
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Endocrine System
Peptide hormone
Representation of the molecular structure of a peptide hormone.
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Endocrine System
Adrenal Cortex
The three layers of the adrenal cortex are shown, the outermost zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata and the innermost zona reticularis.
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Endocrine System
GAS
A diagram of the general adaptation syndrome model,
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Endocrine System
Ovary
Blood supply of the human female reproductive organs. The left ovary is visible above the label ovarian arteries.
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Endocrine System
The endocrine system
The major endocrine glands for men and women (male left, female on the right): 1. Pineal gland 2. Pituitary gland 3. Thyroid gland 4. Thymus 5. Adrenal
gland 6. Pancreas 7. Ovary 8. Testis
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Endocrine System
Biosynthesis of eicosanoids
Pathways in the biosynthesis of eicosanoids from arachidonic acid.
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Endocrine System
Example hormone receptor
The thyroid hormone receptor (TR) heterodimerized to the RXR. In the absence of a ligand, the TR is bound to a corepressor protein. Ligand binding to
the TR causes a dissociation of co-repressor and recruitment of co-activator proteins, which in turn recruit additional proteins (such as RNA polymerase)
that are responsible for the transcription of downstream DNA into RNA, and eventually into protein that results in a change in cell function.
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Endocrine System
The glucagon receptor structure
Glucagon is a pancreatic peptide hormone that, as a counter-regulatory hormone for insulin, stimulates glucose release by the liver and maintains
glucose homeostasis.
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Wikimedia. "MMDB ID 62600 PDB ID 3C59 Crystal Structure Of The Ligand-Bound Glucagon-Like Peptide- 1 Receptor Extracellular Domain." CC BY-SA
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:MMDB_ID_62600_PDB_ID_3C59_Crystal_Structure_Of_The_Ligand-Bound_Glucagon-Like_Peptide-
Endocrine System
The pituitary gland
In this image, the pituitary gland is referred to by its other name, the hypophysis.
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Endocrine System
Endocrine glands of the head and neck
The endocrine systems found in the head and neck include the hypothalamus, pineal, pituitary and thyroid glands.
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Endocrine System
Thyroid hormone
Diagrammatic representation of thyroid hormone synthesis in a thyroid follicle.
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Endocrine System
Second messenger mechanisms
General schematic of second messenger generation following activation of membrane bound receptors. 1. The agonist activates the membrane-bound
receptor. 2. G-protein is activated and produces an effector. 3. The effector stimulates a second messenger synthesis. 4. The second messenger
activates an intercellular process.
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Endocrine System
Lipid-soluble hormone receptor activation
Nuclear hormone receptors are activated by a lipid-soluble hormone such as estrogen, binding to them inside the cell. Lipid-soluble hormones can cross
the plasma membrane.
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Endocrine System
Lipid soluble hormones directly regulate gene expression
This figure depicts the mechanism of a class I nuclear receptor (NR) that, in the absence of ligand, is located in the cytosol. Hormone binding to the NR
triggers translocation to the nucleus, where the NR binds to a specific sequence of DNA known as a hormone response element (HRE).
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Endocrine System
Hormone levels during menstrual cycle
This image depicts the levels of certain hormones during the menstrual cycle (B), as they correspond to follicular growth and ovulation (A). 1. Folliclestimulating hormone 2. Estrogen 3. Luteinizing hormone 4. Progesterone.
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Endocrine System
Adrenal glands
The adrenal glands are triangular-shaped organs on top of the kidneys.
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Endocrine System
Calcium regulation
Parathyroid hormone regulates the levels of calcium in the blood. to the parathyroid glands.
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Endocrine System
Endocrine glands in the human head and neck
The endocrine system is the system of glands, each of which secretes different types of hormones directly into the bloodstream (some of which are
transported along nerve tracts) to regulate the body.
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Endocrine System
Adrenal glands
These are responsible for releasing hormones in response to stress through the synthesis of corticosteroids such as cortisol, and catecholamines such
as epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine.
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Endocrine System
Placenta
The placenta is an organ connecting the developing fetus to the uterine wall to allow nutrient uptake, waste elimination, and gas exchange via the
mother's blood supply.
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Endocrine System
Pituitary location
The location of pituitary gland in the human brain.
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Endocrine System
The thyroid system
Thyroid hormones are produced from the thyroid under the influence of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) from the anterior pituitary gland, which is itself
under the control of thyroptropin-releasing hormone (TRH) secreted by the hypothalamus. Thyroid hormones provide negative feedback, inhibiting
secretion of TRH and TSH when blood levels are high.
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Endocrine System
Pituitary gland
The anterior and posterior lobes of the pituitary (hypophysis) gland are shown.
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Endocrine System
Thyroid system
Thyroid function is regulated by the actions of the hypothalamus and pituitary gland.
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Endocrine System
The anterior pituitary
The anterior pituitary, in yellow, is linked to the hypothalamus by a portal system. The hypothalamus releases signaling molecules that incite the anterior
pituitary to produce hormones.
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Endocrine System
Thyroid system
An overview of the thyroid system.
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Endocrine System
Islets of Langerhans
A porcine islet of Langerhans. On the left is a brightfield image created using hematoxylin stain; nuclei are dark circles and the acinar pancreatic tissue is
darker than the islet tissue. The right image is the same section stained by immunofluorescence against insulin, indicating beta cells.
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Endocrine System
Pancreatic islets or islets of Langerhans
The islets of Langerhans are the regions of the pancreas that contain its endocrine (hormone-producing) cells.
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Wikimedia Commons. "Illustration depicting pancreatic islet." CC BY 3.0
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Endocrine System
Pancreatic tissue
The small cells in the middle are beta cells, and the surrounding larger cells are alpha, delta, gamma, and epsilon cells.
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Endocrine System
Mechanism of stress and stress response
The hypothalmic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is an endocrine cascade that mediates several aspects of physiological stress, including responses to
acute stressors (i.e., fight-or-flight response) but it also causes chronic stress.
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Endocrine System
Hematopoiesis as it occurs in humans, with important hemopoietic growth factors affecting differentiation
This chart shows the complexity of interactions, and the multitude of growth factors that stimulate proliferation and differentiation of cells that is common
to all cell types. The majority of growth factors shown above are cytokines such as GM-CSF, however the hormone EPO secreted by the kidney plays a
key role in erythrocyte (red blood cell) proliferation.
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Endocrine System
General adaptation syndrome
Resistance reaction is the second stage of the general adaptation syndrome and is characterized by a heightened resistance to a stressor.
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Endocrine System
Adrenal gland
The adrenal medulla sits below the three layers of the adrenal cortex and is innervated by nerve fibers.
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Endocrine System
Regions of the brain associated with stress and PTSD
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a severe anxiety disorder that can develop after exposure to psychological trauma.
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Endocrine System
Parathyroid gland
The parathyroid gland in relation to the thyroid gland. They are located on the posterior surface of the lobes.
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Endocrine System
Water-soluble hormone receptor activation
Water-soluble hormones, such as epinephrine, bind to a cell-surface localized receptor, initiating a signaling cascade using intracellular second
messengers.
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Endocrine System
The fight-or-flight response
A diagrammatic representation of the fight-or-flight response.
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Endocrine System
Attribution
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• Wikibooks. "Metabolomics/Hormones/Glucagon." CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Metabolomics/Hormones/Glucagon%23Regulation
• Wiktionary. "insulin." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/insulin
• Wikipedia. "Islets of Langerhans." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islets_of_Langerhans%23Cell_types
• Wiktionary. "somatostatin." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/somatostatin
• Wiktionary. "glucagon." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/glucagon
• Wiktionary. "insulin." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/insulin
• Wikipedia. "Parathyroid gland." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parathyroid_gland
• Wiktionary. "parathyroid gland." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/parathyroid_gland
• Wiktionary. "calcitonin." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/calcitonin
• Wiktionary. "vitamin D." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/vitamin_D
• Wikipedia. "Adrenal gland." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenal_gland
• Wikipedia. "Adrenal medulla." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenal%20medulla
• Wiktionary. "adrenal cortex." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/adrenal_cortex
• Wikipedia. "Testicle." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testicle
• Wikipedia. "Ovary." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovary
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Endocrine System
• Wiktionary. "gonad." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gonad
• Wiktionary. "ovary." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ovary
• Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//physiology/definition/testes
• Wikibooks. "Human Physiology/The male reproductive system." CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Human_Physiology/The_male_reproductive_system%23Testes
• Wikipedia. "Hormones." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hormones
• Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//physiology/definition/lipid-soluble-hormone
• Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//physiology/definition/water-soluble-hormone--2
• Wiktionary. "hormone." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hormone
• Wikibooks. "Human Physiology/The endocrine system." CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Human_Physiology/The_endocrine_system%23Hormones_and_Types
• Wikibooks. "Human Physiology/The endocrine system." CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Human_Physiology/The_endocrine_system%23Hormones_and_Types
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• Wiktionary. "paracrine." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/paracrine
• Wiktionary. "exocrine." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/exocrine
• Wiktionary. "endocrine." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/endocrine
• Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//biology/definition/diffusion
• Wikibooks. "Human Physiology/The endocrine system." CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Human_Physiology/The_endocrine_system%23Hormones_and_Types
• Wikibooks. "Human Physiology/The endocrine system." CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Human_Physiology/The_endocrine_system%23Hormones_and_Types
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• Wikipedia. "permissiveness." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/permissiveness
Endocrine System
• Wikipedia. "Synergism." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synergism%23Biological_sciences
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• Wikipedia. "Permissiveness (biology)." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permissiveness_(biology)
• Wikipedia. "synergism." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/synergism
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http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Human_Physiology/The_endocrine_system%23Antagonistic_Hormones
• Wikibooks. "Human Physiology/The endocrine system." CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Human_Physiology/The_endocrine_system%23Endocrine_Glands
• Wikipedia. "adrenal gland." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/adrenal%20gland
• Wikipedia. "thyroid." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/thyroid
• Wiktionary. "hormone." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hormone
• Wikipedia. "omega-3." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/omega-3
• Wikipedia. "Eicosanoid." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eicosanoid
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• Wiktionary. "essential fatty acid." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/essential_fatty_acid
• Wikibooks. "Human Physiology/The endocrine system." CC BY-SA 3.0
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• Wikipedia. "secondary messenger." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/secondary%20messenger
• Wiktionary. "hormone." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hormone
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http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Human_Physiology/The_endocrine_system%23Introduction_To_The_Endocrine_System
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Endocrine System
• Wikibooks. "Human Physiology/The endocrine system." CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Human_Physiology/The_endocrine_system%23Introduction_To_The_Endocrine_System
• Wikipedia. "Hormone." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hormone
• Wikipedia. "hormone receptor." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/hormone%20receptor
• Wikipedia. "Luteinizing hormone." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luteinizing_hormone
• Wikipedia. "Half-life." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Half-life%23Half-life_in_biology_and_pharmacology
• Wikipedia. "Endocrine gland." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endocrine_gland
• Wiktionary. "hormone." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hormone
• Wiktionary. "half-life." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/half-life
• Wikipedia. "Pituitary gland." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pituitary_gland%23Sections
• Wikipedia. "hypophyseal portal system." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/hypophyseal%20portal%20system
• Wikipedia. "Hypophyseal portal system." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypophyseal_portal_system
• Wiktionary. "hypothalamus." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hypothalamus
• Wiktionary. "pituitary gland." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pituitary_gland
• Wikipedia. "Hormone." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hormone%23Interactions_with_receptors
• Wikipedia. "secondary messenger." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/secondary%20messenger
• Wikipedia. "Thyroid hormone." CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thyroid_hormone%23Production_of_the_thyroid_hormones
• Wikipedia. "thyroid-stimulating hormone." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/thyroid-stimulating%20hormone
• Wikipedia. "triiodothyronine (T3)." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/triiodothyronine%20(T3)
• Wiktionary. "thyroxine." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/thyroxine
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Endocrine System
• Wiktionary. "action potential." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/action_potential
• Wiktionary. "neurotransmitters." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/neurotransmitters
• Wiktionary. "hormone." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hormone
• Wikibooks. "Anatomy and Physiology of Animals/Endocrine System." CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Anatomy_and_Physiology_of_Animals/Endocrine_System%23The_Endocrine_System
• Wikipedia. "Adrenal gland." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenal_gland%23Cortex
• Wiktionary. "androgen." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/androgen
• Wiktionary. "adrenal cortex." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/adrenal_cortex
• Wikipedia. "Hormone." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hormone
• Wikipedia. "Hormone." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hormone%23Chemical_classes_of_hormones
• Wiktionary. "cholesterol." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cholesterol
• Wiktionary. "prostaglandin." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/prostaglandin
• Wiktionary. "testosterone." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/testosterone
• Wikipedia. "paracrine action." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/paracrine%20action
• Wikipedia. "Target cell." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Target_cell
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• Wikipedia. "Receptor (biochemistry)." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Receptor_(biochemistry)
• Wiktionary. "target cell." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/target_cell
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• Wiktionary. "hypothalamus." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hypothalamus
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Endocrine System
• Wiktionary. "pituitary gland." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pituitary_gland
• Wikipedia. "bone remodeling." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/bone%20remodeling
• Wikipedia. "Parathyroid hormone." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parathyroid_hormone
• Wiktionary. "osteoclast." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/osteoclast
• Wiktionary. "vitamin D." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/vitamin_D
• Wikipedia. "Growth factor." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Growth_factor
• Wikipedia. "bone morphogenic proteins." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/bone%20morphogenic%20proteins
• Wikipedia. "fibroblast growth factors." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/fibroblast%20growth%20factors
• Wikipedia. "hematopoietic." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/hematopoietic
• Wikipedia. "Fight-or-flight response." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response
• Wikipedia. "noradrenaline." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/noradrenaline
• Wiktionary. "adrenaline." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/adrenaline
• Wiktionary. "catecholamine." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/catecholamine
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• Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//physiology/definition/general-adaptationsyndrome
• Wikipedia. "General adaptation syndrome." CC BY-SA 3.0
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• Wiktionary. "polycythemia." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/polycythemia
• Wikipedia. "Adrenal medulla." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenal_medulla
• Wikipedia. "Chromaffin cells." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromaffin_cells
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Endocrine System
• Wikipedia. "Chromaffin cells." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromaffin_cells
• Wikipedia. "Adrenal gland." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenal_gland%23Cortex
• Wikipedia. "Pheochromocytoma." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pheochromocytoma
• Wiktionary. "neuroendocrine." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/neuroendocrine
• Wiktionary. "adrenal cortex." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/adrenal_cortex
• Wiktionary. "neuroblast." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/neuroblast
• Wikipedia. "Anterior pituitary." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anterior_pituitary
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• Wikipedia. "Stress (biology)." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_(biology)%23General_adaptive_syndrome
• Wiktionary. "decompensation." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/decompensation
• Wikipedia. "Stress (biology)." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_(biology)%23Biological_background
• Wikipedia. "Sympathetic nervous system." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sympathetic_nervous_system
• Wikipedia. "Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis." CC BY-SA 3.0
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• Wikipedia. "Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis." CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothalamic%E2%80%93pituitary%E2%80%93adrenal_axis
• Wiktionary. "glucocorticoid." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/glucocorticoid
• Wikipedia. "Signal cascade." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal%20cascade
• Wiktionary. "endocrine." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/endocrine
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• Wikipedia. "Nuclear receptor." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_receptor
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Endocrine System
• Wikipedia. "Second messenger system." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_messenger_system
• Wikipedia. "hormone response element." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/hormone%20response%20element
• Wikipedia. "secondary messenger." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/secondary%20messenger
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• Wikipedia. "Thyroid." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thyroid%23T3_and_T4_regulation
• Wikipedia. "thyrotropin-releasing hormone." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/thyrotropin-releasing%20hormone
• Wiktionary. "calcitonin." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/calcitonin
• Wikipedia. "Pituitary gland." CC BY-SA 3.0
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• Wikipedia. "Posterior pituitary." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posterior_pituitary
• Wikipedia. "posterior pituitary." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/posterior%20pituitary
• Wiktionary. "vasopressin." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/vasopressin
• Wiktionary. "oxytocin." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/oxytocin
• Wikipedia. "Thyroid." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thyroid%23T3_and_T4_production_and_action
• Wiktionary. "thyroxine." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/thyroxine
• Wikipedia. "Placenta." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placenta%23Endocrine_function
• Wikipedia. "Adipose tissue." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adipose_tissue
• Wikipedia. "Kidney." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidney%23Hormone_secretion
• Wikipedia. "erthyropoietin." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/erthyropoietin
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Endocrine System
• Wikipedia. "Digestion." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digestion%23Digestive_hormones
• Wikipedia. "Atrial natriuretic peptide." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atrial_natriuretic_peptide
• Wiktionary. "calcitriol." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/calcitriol
• Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//physiology/definition/atrial-natriuretic-hormone--2
• Wikipedia. "Stress (biology)." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_(biology)%23General_adaptive_syndrome
• Wiktionary. "hypervigilance." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hypervigilance
• Wiktionary. "post-traumatic stress disorder." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/post-traumatic_stress_disorder
• Wikipedia. "acute stress response." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/acute%20stress%20response
• Wiktionary. "umbilical cord." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/umbilical_cord
• Wikipedia. "Placenta." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placenta
• Wiktionary. "placenta." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/placenta
• Wiktionary. "human chorionic gonadotropin." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/human_chorionic_gonadotropin
• Wikipedia. "thyroid-stimulating hormone." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/thyroid-stimulating%20hormone
• Wiktionary. "thyroxine." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/thyroxine
• Wikipedia. "Thyroid." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thyroid
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