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Fig. 10.1 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Pituitary Thyroid Thymus Adrenals Ovaries (female) Pineal gland Parathyroids (posterior part of thyroid) Pancreas (islets) Testes (male) Fig. 10.4 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Stimulatory Hypothalamus Releasing hormone 1 Anterior pituitary Posterior pituitary Hormone 2 Target 3 Target endocrine cell Hormone 1 Neurons in the hypothalamus release stimulatory hormones, called releasing hormones. Releasing hormones travel in the blood to the anterior pituitary gland. 2 Releasing hormones stimulate the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary, which travel in the blood to their target endocrine cell. 3 The target endocrine cell secretes its hormone into the blood, where it travels to its target and produces a response. Fig. 10.12 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Hypothalamus Third ventricle Optic chiasm Infundibulum Pituitary gland Sella turcica of sphenoid bone Hypothalamic nerve cell Bone Posterior pituitary Anterior pituitary Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) Growth hormone (GH) Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) Kidney tubules Thyroidstimulating hormone (TSH) Oxytocin Uterus smooth muscle Adrenal cortex Prolactin Gonadotropic hormones Melanocyte- (FSH and LH) stimulating hormone Thyroid gland Testis Ovary Mammary glands Mammary glands Skin Fig. 10.1 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Pituitary Thyroid Thymus Adrenals Ovaries (female) Pineal gland Parathyroids (posterior part of thyroid) Pancreas (islets) Testes (male) Fig. 10.6 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Hormone 1 Hormone 2 Capillary Circulating blood Hormone 2 cannot bind to this receptor Hormone 1 bound to its receptor Hormone 1 receptor Target cell for hormone 1 Fig. 10.7 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Water-soluble hormone (glucagon, prolactin) Lipid-soluble hormone (thyroid or steroid) Membrane-bound receptor G protein complex Cellular responses ATP cAMP Protein kinase Nucleus Hormone DNA (a) Nuclear receptor Cellular responses (b) Adenylate cyclase Fig. 10.2 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. PTH Ca2+ Osteoclasts Endocrine cell when blood Ca2+ is too low No PTH secretion Endocrine cell when blood Ca2+ is too high Ca2+ Fig. 10.3 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Neuron 1 An action potential (AP) in a neuron innervating an endocrine cell stimulates secretion of a stimulatory neurotransmitter. 2 AP The endocrine cell secretes its hormone into the blood where it will travel to its target. 1 Stimulatory neurotransmitter Endocrine cell 2 Hormone secreted Capillary Fig. 10.19 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Hypothalamus stimulated by • Stress • Physical activity • Low blood glucose levels Action potentials travel through the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system. Adrenal Secretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine increases. Target tissue • Increases release of glucose from the liver • Increases release of fatty acids from fat stores • Increases heart rate • Decreases blood flow through blood vessels of internal organs and skin • Increases blood flow to skeletal muscles and the heart • Decreases function of visceral organs • Increases blood pressure • Increases metabolic rate in skeletal muscles Fig. 8.39 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Preganglionic neuron Postganglionic neuron Lacrimal gland Ciliary ganglion III Eye Nasal mucosa Pterygopalatine ganglion Sublingualand submandibular glands Submandibular ganglion VII IX Parotid gland Sympathetic nerves Spinal cord Medulla Otic ganglion X Trachea T1 Lung Celiac ganglion Greater splanchnic nerve Lesser splanchnic nerve Heart Liver Superior mesenteric ganglion Stomach Adrenal gland Spleen Pancreas Small intestine L2 Lumbar splanchnic nerves Sacral splanchnic nerves Kidney Inferior mesenteric ganglion Large intestine S2 S3 S4 Pelvic nerve Hypogastric ganglion Large intestine Sympathetic chain Urinary system and genitalia Sympathetic Preganglionic neuron Postganglionic neuron Parasympathetic Fig. 10.14 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Stimuli from the nervous system Stimulatory Inhibitory Hypothalamic nerve cells 1 Stimuli within the nervous system stimulate hypothalamic nerve cells to produce action potentials. 2 Action potentials are carried by axons of nerve cells to the posterior pituitary. The axons of nerve cells store hormones in the posterior pituitary. 1 Optic chiasm 2 Posterior pituitary Hormone 3 In the posterior pituitary gland, action potentials cause the release of hormones (red circles) from the axons into the circulatory system. Anterior pituitary 3 Vein 4 The hormones pass through the circulatory system and influence the activity of their target tissues (green arrow). 4 Target tissue Fig. 10.4-2 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Stimulatory Hypothalamus Releasing hormone 1 Anterior pituitary Posterior pituitary Hormone 2 Target Target endocrine cell Hormone 1 Neurons in the hypothalamus release stimulatory hormones, called releasing hormones. Releasing hormones travel in the blood to the anterior pituitary gland. 2 Releasing hormones stimulate the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary, which travel in the blood to their target endocrine cell. Fig. 10.16 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Stimulatory Inhibitory 1 2 3 Neurons within the hypothalamus release TSH-releasing hormone into the blood. It passes through the hypothalamic-pituitary portal system to the anterior pituitary. TSH-releasing hormone 1 TSH-releasing hormone causes cells of the anterior pituitary to secrete TSH, which passes through the general circulation to the thyroid gland. Hypothalamic-pituitary portal system TSH causes increased release of thyroid hormones (T 3 and T4) into the general circulation. Anterior pituitary TSH 2 4 T3 and T4 act on target tissues to produce a response. 5 T3 and T4 5 T3 and T4 also have an inhibitory effect on the secretion of TSH-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus and TSH from the anterior pituitary. Hypothalamus 4 3 Thyroid gland Target tissue • Increases metabolism • Increases body temperature • Increases normal growth and development Fig. 10.18-2 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Abdominal aorta Adrenal gland Fat Renal artery Adrenal glands Renal vein Kidney Ureter (a) Cortex Medulla (b) Adrenal gland Anterior view Fig. 10.21 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. ACTH-releasing hormone Stimulatory 1 Hypothalamus Inhibitory Hypothalamic-pituitary portal system 1 In response to stress or low blood glucose, ACTH-releasing hormone passes from the hypothalamus through the hypothalamicpituitary portal system to the anterior pituitary. The releasing hormone binds to and stimulates cells that secrete ACTH into the general circulation. Anterior pituitary ACTH 4 Cortisol 2 ACTH acts on the adrenal cortex and stimulates the secretion of cortisol into the general circulation. 3 Cortisol acts on its target tissues to increase protein breakdown and blood glucose. 4 Cortisol acts on the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary to decrease ACTH secretion. 2 Adrenal cortex 3 Target tissue • Increases fat and protein breakdown • Increases blood glucose levels • Has anti-inflammatory effects Fig. 10.7 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Water-soluble hormone (glucagon, prolactin) Lipid-soluble hormone (thyroid or steroid) Membrane-bound receptor G protein complex Cellular responses ATP cAMP Protein kinase Nucleus Hormone DNA (a) Nuclear receptor Cellular responses (b) Adenylate cyclase Fig. 10.8-5 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 1 Lipid-soluble hormones diffuse through the plasma membrane. 2 Lipid-soluble hormones bind to cytoplasmic receptors and travel to the nucleus or bind to nuclear receptors. Some lipid-soluble hormones bind receptors in the cytoplasm and then move into the nucleus. Lipid-soluble hormone Plasma membrane 1 Nuclear membrane 3 The hormone–receptor complex binds to a hormone response element on the DNA, acting as a transcription factor. Ribosome 2 4 The binding of the hormone–receptor complex to DNA stimulates the synthesis of messenger RNA (mRNA), which codes for specific proteins. 5 The mRNA leaves the nucleus, passes into the cytoplasm of the cell, and binds to ribosomes, where it directs the synthesis of specific proteins. 3 Nuclear receptor Hormone–receptor complex mRNA DNA 5 Hormone response element mRNA synthesis 4 Proteins produced mRNA Nuclear pore Fig. 10.7 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Water-soluble hormone (glucagon, prolactin) Lipid-soluble hormone (thyroid or steroid) Membrane-bound receptor G protein complex Cellular responses ATP cAMP Protein kinase Nucleus Hormone DNA (a) Nuclear receptor Cellular responses (b) Adenylate cyclase Fig. 10.11 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Receptor Hormone Activated G proteins Activated adenylate cyclase cAMP Activated protein kinase enzymes Table 10.1 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. TABLE 10.1 Classes of Chemical Messengers Chemical Messengers Autocrine Paracrine Description Example Secreted by cells in a local area; influences the activity of the same cell from which it was secreted Eicosanoids (prostaglandins, thromboxanes, prostacyclins, leukotrienes) Produced by a wide variety of tissues and secreted into extracellular fluid; has a localized effect on other tissues Somatostatin, histamine, eicosanoids Chemical messenger Autocrine Chemical messenger Paracrine Neurotransmitter Produced by neurons; Acetylcholine, epinephrine secreted into a synaptic cleft by presynaptic nerve terminals; travels short distances; influences postsynaptic cells Neuron Endocrine Secreted into the blood by specialized cells; travels some distance to target tissues; results in coordinated regulation of cell function Thyroid hormones, growth hormone, insulin, epinephrine, estrogen, progesterone, testosterone, prostaglandins Neurotransmitter Hormone Endocrine