Download Jewish Resource Policies: The Beginning and the End of the World

Jewish Resource Policies:
The Beginning and the End of the World
Manfred Gerstenfeld, PhD
about the author
Manfred Gerstenfeld, PhD, is a former Board Member
of the Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs for which he
served as Chairman from 2000 to 2012.
Gerstenfeld has been an international business strategist for forty years. His background is in chemistry,
economics, environmental studies, and Jewish studies.
His current work focuses on anti-Semitism and changes
in the Jewish world. Gerstenfeld has authored sixteen
books and edited six. Books of his have been translated into seven languages. His
books which address environmental issues are: Environment and Confusion: An
Introduction to a Messy Subject, first edition 1993, second English edition 2000;
Judaism, Environmentalism and the Environment, 1998; Environment in the Jewish
Tradition, A Sustainable World, (Hebrew), 2002.
[email protected]
abstract
Concepts of sustainability are central to the Jewish worldview. If one wants
to understand how Judaism views the topic of resources, one can follow two
types of analysis. The first one is to study Biblical texts. The second approach
is to examine Jewish law. I shall look from an environmental viewpoint at the
Torah narratives on Paradise, the Flood, the forty years the Israelites spent in
the desert, and the vision of the messianic age.
Presented at the Tenth Miami International Conference on Torah and Science, December
13–16, 2013
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JEWISH R ESOURCE POLICIES 97
The main basis for this discussion, however, is halakhah, Jewish law. I
shall review halakhic prohibitions regarding the use of certain resources. In
many ways halakhah and contemporary environmental policy converge, but
they differ in outlook. Torah-observant Jews are obligated to protect nature in
specific ways according to G-d’s detailed commandments because G-d is the
creator and owner of the Earth, and humanity is the tenant.
is the world coming to an end?
A
midrashic text describes G-d taking Adam for a walk in the
Garden of Eden:
G-d said to Adam, “See My works, see how pleasant and good they
are. Everything I have created, I have created for you. Be careful not
to spoil and destroy My world. If you do so, no one will repair it”
(Ecclesiastes Rabbah 7:13, Vilna edition).
This midrash provides insights into two related topics. The first is a
broad concept of Jewish resource policies: natural resources should
be managed very carefully; parts of them are finite. The second is that
at the very beginning, humankind is warned that the world, as far as
human life is concerned, may end.
For many years global warming and the threats it poses to humanity
have been a major topic in public debate. Countless current environmental problems are the result of false resource policies. This includes
how resources are obtained and used, and how their waste is disposed
of.
Important issues usually develop Jewish aspects even if it seems
at first that Judaism and the topic in question are unrelated. One of
these aspects is that the possible destruction of the world is compared
in a distorted way to the Holocaust. The expression “environmental
holocaust” is heard frequently today (Gerstenfeld 2009).
While this midrash gives us an indication of a possibly finite world,
Judaism holds no specific opinions about whether we are currently
threatened by an environmental catastrophe that could mean the end
of humankind. Judaism does, however, have broad views on what our
attitude should be toward issues such as resource use and consumption.
Torah Judaism predominantly focuses on how Jews should behave.
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This includes what might be called elements of a Jewish environmental
policy.
jewish resource policies
For a broad analysis of Jewish resource policies, we have to combine
two different approaches. One is to study Biblical texts. The other is to
examine Jewish law and try to understand its perspective on the use of
natural resources. Such an analysis will also provide important insight
into Jewish thought about the beginning and end of the world.
The first text about the resource policies of the Torah is the story
of Creation. Genesis tells us that Adam and Eve lived in a utopia of
resources. There was plentiful supply. All trees and vegetables were at
their disposal except for the Tree of Knowledge and the Tree of Life.
Though many resources were available, Adam and Eve did not have
a need for most of them. They were vegetarians, and had nothing to
transport. They thus did not need animals for any purpose. Other
basic needs of early human societies, like housing and security, did
not exist in Paradise. Clothing was also not required, so no textiles or
other materials were necessary. There was no need for a resource policy
because the resources were abundant.
an environmental utopia
The Garden of Eden was not only a paradise of resources. It was also
an environmental utopia. There was no need for any tools or products.
Thus, there was no waste or resultant residue. No artificial fertilizers or
pesticides were required for plants to grow. Whatever resources Adam
and Eve used — which seem to have been only food — was biodegradable. If there was “post-consumer waste,” it was probably metabolized
into plants. There was no pollution in Paradise. There were no landfills.
Animals did not require special protective measures, as they were not
attacked by any other creatures. Biodiversity was thus maintained.
Vegetarian and not-yet-violent humankind most probably did not
harm nature in any way, or have any other negative impact on the
ecosystem. Paradise was also a very lush environment. There was no
shortage of water because of all the rivers that surrounded it.
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JEWISH R ESOURCE POLICIES 99
In contemporary resource policies, the concept of sustainability is
central. It is defined as: Sustainability creates and maintains the conditions under which humans and nature can exist in productive harmony
that permit fulfilling the social, economic, and other requirements of
present and future generations.1 We could say that, initially, perfect sustainability reigned in Paradise. Adam and Eve should have left Paradise
for their children with the same resources they received. Unfortunately,
they did not.
The initial Biblical worldview on the use of resources seems clear.
In Paradise, there is minimal use of resources and whatever resources
are used, primarily food, are recycled and thus preserved. We shall see
that similar concepts later became central to the Jewish worldview on
resources, also as far as humanity at large is concerned.
the flood
Important insights can be gained as well from the story of the Flood.
Man and animals are punished for their sins. Many people today believe
that nature will take revenge on us for having been abused. Global
warming is an example of this. It could be translated as: “Mankind has
caused the heating up of the world and it will suffer for it.” In the Bible,
much emphasis is given to the idea that nature is a tool of punishment
for moral misbehavior. Similarly, nature can be used to reward people.
The story of the Israelites crossing the Red Sea — and the Egyptians
afterwards drowning in it — is an example of both. Nature can also be
used to teach people something. One might consider the burning bush
Moses saw as an example of that.
Concerning resources, the Deluge almost entirely eliminated the
human race. Only Noah and his family survived. The Flood also represents a huge destruction of many of the Earth’s resources. Of all animals, either one or seven pairs survived. The message of this Biblical
story seems clear. Many of the world’s resources are destroyed, yet they
are not annihilated forever because biodiversity is maintained.
After the Deluge, there was a new development in resource
1. United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): www.epa.gov/sustain-
ability/basicinfo.htm#sustainability
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availability. G-d gave humankind permission to eat meat. Previously,
Adam could only eat products of the earth because G-d had said,
“Behold, I have given you every tree in which there is the fruit of a
tree yielding seed — to you it shall be for food” (Genesis 1:26). Noah,
however, was permitted to eat living creatures. “Every moving thing
that liveth shall be food for you: as the green herb have I given you all”
(Genesis 9:3). In resource policies terminology, the resources available
to us increased when we were allowed to eat meat after the Flood.
manna
There is another Biblical story which details an ideal situation of how
resources are best used. In religion, the desert often has significant
meaning. Imagine the change in resources when the Israelites left Egypt
and trekked through the desert on their way to the Promised Land.
The most enlightening Biblical story on the use of resources by the
Israelites in the desert is that of the manna.2 When Moses commands
the Israelites to collect manna, he instructs every householder to gather
only enough for those living in his tent (Exodus 16:16). Irrespective
of how much manna an individual collected, it always ended up being
equal in quantity: one ọmer per person (Exodus 16:18; Rashi on Exodus
16:17; and Ibn Ezra’s commentary on Exodus 16:16). We could learn
from this divine equal apportioning that we should not over-consume.3
This precedes another contemporary environmental concern. Manna
is, to some extent, the antithesis of conspicuous consumption (Veblen
1965; Gerstenfeld 2002).
The manna that was left behind in the desert did not pollute.
Whatever was not collected by the Israelites melted in the sun.
According to Midrash, the manna was fully absorbed into the body,
without any excretion. Thus, the desert remained clean. Some sources
say that the manna that remained was not wasted after it melted
either:
2. For a more detailed analysis, see Manfred Gerstenfeld and Tsachi Golan. 2004.
“Manna as an Environmental Paradigm.” B’Or Ha’Torah. vol. 14-E, pp. 123–130.
3. Ibn Ẹzra points out in his long commentary on Exodus 16:16 that if someone
could not finish eating his portion, he threw the surplus out from his tent.
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As the sun was shining on it, it melted and started to flow, and streams
formed from it on the way to the big sea, and there came deer, gazelles,
and roebucks, and other animals and drank from them. Thereafter, the
nations came and hunted them and ate them, and tasted the Manna
through them which came down for the people of Israel (Midrash
Meħilta d’Rabbi Yishmael, B’Shallaħ 4. See also Talmud Yoma
75b).
When in a religion or a culture a concept exists such as not to waste,
it manifests itself often in various sources. A midrash also tells us that
from the ram which was sacrificed instead of Isaac, nothing was wasted.
The ashes of the ram are the foundation upon which the inner altar
was built. As it says: The tendons become the strings of the harp used
by David to sing praises to G-d; the leather is fashioned into a girdle
worn by the prophet Elijah; and the two horns are also put to use. The
left horn is the horn that was blown by G-d on Mount Sinai. The right
horn, considered to be larger and greater, is the horn that will be blown
in the future to gather the exiles.4
A similar insight we get from the Biblical text which tells us that
one should not eat flesh torn by beasts in the field. Yet it should not
go to waste, but be thrown to the dogs.5 “You shall be holy people to
Me: you must not eat flesh torn by beasts in the field; you shall cast it
to the dogs.”
The Torah refers to other methods of waste reduction and waste
disposal in the desert:
I led you through the wilderness for forty years; the clothes on
your back did not wear out, nor did the sandals on your feet…
(Deuteronomy 8:4).
The experience of the Jews in the desert is thus an additional major
narrative about the ideal use of resources. One type of food took care of
all the Israelites’ needs. It was totally absorbed in their bodies. Clothing
and shoes never wore out.
4. Pirkei D’Rabbi Eliezer, no. 31
5. Exodus 22:30
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Jewish law
The fundamental basis of Jewish life, however, is halakhah, Jewish law.
Halakhah tells us much about permitted and advisable use of resources.
The main resource of human sustenance is land. Land is essential for
human survival. Abusive land use and widespread erosion are considered among the most serious threats to sustainability today.
One commandment that explicitly establishes that G-d owns the
land is that of the Jubilee year. G-d informs us that:
…the land must not be sold beyond reclaim, for the land is Mine; you
are but strangers resident with Me (Leviticus 25:23).
Thus, G-d, the landowner, made a contract with the Israelites, the tenants, concerning the Land of Israel. This major contract clause tells us
that land, a Divinely owned resource, cannot be sold permanently. As
the Israelite cannot become a full owner of the land, he may not do
whatever he wants with it.
What one might call a second clause of this contract of tenancy is the
prohibition for Israelites to work the land in certain years: the sabbatical years (shmitah, see Leviticus 25:4–5) and the Jubilee years (yovel,
Leviticus 25:11). During every seventh year, the Israelite has to let
his land lie fallow. The same prohibitions apply to the fiftieth year, the
Jubilee, which marks the end of seven sabbatical cycles. In environmental terminology, these Biblical laws embody significant sustainability
elements. They enable the regeneration of the earth.
From contemporary economic and environmental viewpoints, the
sabbatical as well as the Jubilee years can be seen as legal measures
to prevent exhaustion of the land. They express two important subcategories of modern environmental concern: land use policies and
the preservation of natural resources. Soil protection is an integral part
of both. From the Jewish point of view, however, the essence of these
laws is obeying G-d’s commandments. Judaism and environmentalism
may converge on policy here, but they represent two radically different
worldviews.
A third clause of the contract of tenancy between G-d and the Jewish
people is that we are restricted from sowing different species together
(kilayim, Leviticus 19:19). A fourth clause is the obligation to tithe the
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yield of the land to G-d, the landlord, and to His servants, the priests
and the Levites, as well as to the poor.
A fifth clause is that Israelites are not allowed to eat the produce of
the land immediately (ħadash, leviticus 23:14). The first produce must
be brought to the Temple. The concept that the land belongs to G-d is
further expressed through this commandment:
…you shall take some of every fruit of the soil, which you harvest
from the land that the L-rd your G-d is giving you, put it in a basket,
and go to the place where the L-rd your G-d will choose to establish
His name (Deuteronomy 26:2).
This commandment allows us to better understand the story of Cain
and Abel (Genesis 4). Cain’s sacrifice is rejected because he fails to
recognize G-d’s ownership and brings a defective offering.
Similarly, we are forbidden to eat the fruits of the tree before a
certain year (ọrlah, Leviticus 19:23). Yet another clause forbids the
destruction of fruit trees, a concept that has developed in Jewish tradition far beyond that. The idea has been expanded to a prohibition on
wanton destruction even of one’s own possessions. An additional clause
controls self-imposition of ascetic restrictions on consumption, beyond
what is forbidden by Jewish law. A nazir is not viewed very positively
and has to bring a sacrifice at the end of his period of denial (numbers
6:1–21).
dietary laws
We can apply a similar analysis concerning Jewish dietary restrictions.
They can also be seen as part of our tenancy contract. Contrary to the
use of land, however, the dietary restrictions apply everywhere. Jewish
law forbids the use of certain food resources. One category is meat from
non-kosher animals. Another is food that is not properly prepared,
for instance, meat from permitted animals not slaughtered according
to halakhah. A third category is the consumption of certain resources
together or within a certain time span, such as meat and milk. A fourth
category is the prohibition of some permitted resources at a specific
time, for instance bread and other products made with yeast during
Passover. On some days, like Yom Kippur and other fast days, no food
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or drink is permitted at all. The tenancy contract also embodies Jewish
resource policies through limitations on wearing certain mixtures of
materials, i.e., wool and linen together (Deuteronomy 22:11).
A much more dilute form of a tenancy contract exists between G-d
and all of humankind. Paradise was given to Adam and Eve as its tenants, to till and care for it (Genesis 2:15). Yet, as mentioned above, not
all resources were available for their use. They were not allowed to eat
meat or the fruit of two specific trees.
Thus, the laws given to the Israelites follow a Divine concept, which
was there from the beginning of the world: We are not free to use all
the resources that seem available. Few foods were forbidden to Adam
and Eve. Yet they transgressed the prohibition and consequently lost
Paradise. Prohibitions under the Divine tenancy contract with the
Israelites were numerous. Besides concrete outcomes, there were also
psychological ones. If resources cannot be used, or can only be used
under specific conditions, the limitation creates a very different mindset than if all resources were freely at our disposal. We can conclude
that the tenancy contract has created a uniquely Jewish perspective on
resources.
the prohibition on wanton destruction
Modern environmental movements often claim that we should value
and protect nature for its own sake. Frequently, the argument is also
made that by harming nature, we harm ourselves. The Torah position
on the attitude toward nature is different. The Torah position is to
follow G-d’s orders. Nature should be protected in the ways that G-d
specified in detailed commandments, whether they seem logical or not.
Sometimes rationale for the commandments is offered, and sometimes
it is not.
One key commandment for the protection of natural resources is the
Biblical law forbidding the wanton destruction of fruit trees (bal tashħit
— do not destroy, Deuteronomy 20:19–20). This principle is perhaps
the one most frequently mentioned in contemporary Jewish publications when discussing the attitude of Judaism toward the environment.
This commandment has both environmental and economic
aspects. The prohibition expresses two important sub-categories of
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the environmental discourse. One is protecting elements of nature; a
second is preserving natural resources. Fruit from trees feeds people;
we should not destroy the basis of human sustenance in order to wage
war. Although fruit trees are a renewable resource we should deal with
them carefully. One reason could be that it takes a long time for trees
to grow and reach the fruit-bearing stage.
Not destroying fruit trees means saving their future fruit for the
Israelite conqueror and thus guaranteeing food for it. Classic Jewish
literature contains a number of discussions on economic and environmental considerations regarding cutting down fruit trees (Gerstenfeld
1998, p. 112).
Over the centuries, the prohibition in Jewish law against wanton
destruction has expanded far beyond cutting down fruit trees (ibid.).
Some sources mention that it is prohibited to use more of any resource
than necessary to accomplish any given task. This includes natural
resources such as fuel (Talmud Shabbat 67b) or food. The all-toocommon practice today of conspicuous consumption would be a violation of this prohibition.
In the words of the renowned nineteenth-century German Jewish
scholar Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch, a righteous person sees every
resource in his possession “as holy in his eyes, even if not worth any significant amount of money; and he won’t waste it or needlessly destroy
it, and he takes responsibility to ensure it is used efficiently. A fortune
is in his eyes as insignificant as a shoelace when he needs to spend it
for a proper purpose, and the value of a shoelace is as a fortune when
it may be wasted without proper purpose” (Hirsch commentary on
Genesis 32:25).
Animal Protection
Another important natural resource that humans may use is animals.
Jews are only allowed to use animals within the framework of the tenancy contract, according to which we must protect animals in several
ways. Jews can use certain animals for food, transport, or work, but
the restrictions vis-à-vis animal welfare are significant. One important
constraint is the prohibition against eating the limb of a living animal
(Deuteronomy 12:23). This is so important that it is part of the Seven
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Noahide Commandments, which all humans are required by G-d to
obey.
The welfare of animals and protecting them from harm or pain are
principles of Jewish law (ibid.). We are commanded to feed our animals
before we ourselves eat. Farmers are forbidden to plow with an ox and a
donkey together (Deuteronomy 22:10) because this would cause great
hardship to the weaker animal, the donkey. Even when we are fasting,
for one reason or another, we must still feed our animals to prevent
them from suffering (Tsits Eliezer, responsum 6:7). Just as the Jew rests
on Shabbat, so must his ox and donkey (Exodus 23:12).
hierarchy of resource use
Upon analyzing the Jewish legal framework, we see that it provides
us with a hierarchy of “useful purpose” in regard to using resources.
Resources should be used according to the following order of need:
The preservation of human life takes precedence over all the commandments of the Torah except for the prohibitions on murder, sexual
immorality, and idol worship. (See Talmud Shabbat 132a and Yoma 85b;
and Shulħan Ạrukh, Oraħ Ħayyim 328:1).
1. To observe Divine commandments (Talmud Shabbat 128b)
2. To preserve and enhance human health and well-being (Talmud
Shabbat 129a and 140b)
3. To preserve and enhance human dignity and respect (Talmud
Shabbat 129a, according to Rashi; Kiddushin 32a, see Tosafot)
4. For other needs, as long as the benefits from using and consuming
the resource exceeds the value of the resource that is consumed
(Talmud Bava Metsiạ 91b)
Using resources in a way that violates this hierarchy of values is considered wasteful behavior and is prohibited by Jewish law.
There are several references in classic Jewish literature to the earlier
mentioned motif of overconsumption. Again, these are written in a
general moral context and not an environmental one. “Who is rich? He
who is happy with his lot” (Mishnah Avot 4:1). In the same Mishnah
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tractate, gluttony is denounced by the sage Hillel: “The more flesh, the
more worms” (Mishnah Avot 2:8).
the messianic era
At the creation of the world and human life, G-d laid down the basic
concepts of resource policies. Paradise was a utopian reality. Another
such reality may emerge in messianic times. Opinions differ, however.
Some leading Jewish figures claim that no basic rules concerning
resources will change in those days.
Yet many other sources refer to changes in human attitudes as well
as the use of resources. As far as attitude is concerned, an important
aspect involves food in the messianic era. According to a midrash, our
priorities will change and our interest in food for physical sustenance
will decrease (Genesis Rabbah 64, Theodor-Albeck edition). This is
gleaned from the prophet Amos:
A time is coming — declares my L-rd G-d — when I will send a
famine upon the land: not a hunger for bread or a thirst for water, but
for hearing the words of the L-rd” (Amos 8:11).
Other midrashic literature mentions changes in nature in messianic
times:
Rabbi Yehudah said that in this world there is a harvest every six
months and the trees produce fruit every twelve months. When the
Messiah arrives, there will be a harvest every month and the trees will
give fruit every two months (Jerusalem Talmud Shkalim 50a).
changes in nature
Several classic and modern Jewish sources refer to environmental
changes anticipated for the Messianic Age. They concern, inter alia,
a modified relationship between man and nature, the end of human
mortality, development of different characteristics in nature, changes in
the human diet, modifications in sensory perception, as well as cosmic
changes. In the vision of the prophet, “The wolf shall dwell with the
lamb, the leopard lie down with the kid; the calf, the beast of prey, and
the fatling together, with a little boy to herd them” (Isaiah 11:6).
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The prophet Ezekiel foresees:
All kinds of trees for food will grow up on both banks of the stream.
Their leaves will not wither nor their fruit fail; they will yield new fruit
every month, because the water for them flows from the Temple. Their
fruit will serve for food and their leaves for healing (Ezekiel 47:11–12).
Midrashic literature mentions similar changes, quoting Isaiah:
For thus said the L-rd, I will extend to her prosperity like a stream,
the wealth of nations like a wadi in flood. And you shall drink of it
(Isaiah 66:12).
The Talmud quotes Rebbe Ħiyya, son of Rav Ashi, who says, in the
name of Rav, that “trees which bear no fruit, in the future will give
produce” (Talmud Ketubbot 112b).
Elsewhere the Talmud mentions that Rabban Gamliel predicted
that one day the trees would produce fruit every day. One of his students joked that there was nothing new under the sun, meaning that as
this was not happening anywhere at the time, it would never happen.
Rabban Gamliel showed him a caper bush, which produces fruit daily.
On another occasion, Rabban Gamliel predicted how in the future
the Land of Israel would bring forth bread and woolen clothing. The
student once again ridiculed this, and Rabban Gamliel then showed
him various things resembling bread and woolen clothes, such as some
types of mushrooms and tree bark (Talmud Shabbat 30b).
A significant aspect of environmental importance concerns food
in the Messianic Era. The apocryphal book of Enokh claims that two
mythical animals — the leviathan and the behemoth — will become
available for food (Enokh 50:24. Hartom edition). This motif is also
developed in the Talmud, which quotes Rabba, who says in the name
of Rabbi Yoħanan, that in the future G-d will prepare a meal for the
righteous from the meat of the leviathan (Talmud Bava Batra 75a).
Rabbi Abraham Isaac Ha’Kohen Kook considered not eating meat
as an ideal to strive toward, noting that Adam was a vegetarian. In our
days, Rabbi J. David Bleich interprets this as meaning that Rabbi Kook
believed that in the Messianic Era all of humankind will be vegetarian,
returning to living as in the Garden of Eden (Bleich 1989, p. 246).
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conclusion
The various elements of the Jewish perspective on resources embody a
thoughtful, careful, and detailed approach. It could be summarized by
saying that resources are here to serve humanity. Yet, we should take a
measured approach toward nature. This is first and foremost so because
of the Divine commandments and not because of self-interest, or of a
responsible attitude toward natural and social environments.
The Torah and the halakhah instruct Jews to show self-restraint and
abstain from wanton destruction as well as from excessive consumption. The Jewish perspective on the required attitude of Jews toward
resources, however, is far more detailed.
Nature is G-d’s property because He created it. He can do with it
as He pleases. He can destroy parts of it as He sees fit. He can use it
to reward and punish humankind and specific people. He has made
natural resources available, but they should not be abused. G-d has
made resources available to the Jewish people under much more specific conditions. This triangular relationship between G-d, man, and
nature is a topic worthy of a far more detailed analysis.
References
Bleich, J. David. 1977. Contemporary Halakhic Problems. New York: Ktav,
vol. 3, p. 246.
Gerstenfeld, Manfred. 2009. The Abuse of Holocaust Memory: Distortions
and Responses. Jerusalem: Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, and the
Anti-Defamation League, pp. 117–118.
Gerstenfeld, Manfred. 2002. Environment and Confusion. Jerusalem: The
Jerusalem Institute for Israel Studies, and Rubin Mass Ltd., pp. 235 ff.
Gerstenfeld, Manfred. 1998. Judaism, Environmentalism and the
Environment. Jerusalem: The Jerusalem Institute for Israel Studies, and
Rubin Mass Ltd., p. 112.
Veblen, T. 1965. The Theory of the Leisure Class. New York: Viking Press,
original edition 1899.
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