Download 2.5: The High Middle Ages: The Church

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2007-08
Montaigne
Outlines for “A History of the Modern World” 9th Edition
Palmer, Colton, and Kramer
2.5: The High Middle Ages: The Church
1. Introduction
a. Modern forms of society challenge cultures to reexamine their religious base
i. Hindus, “Confuciusers” (Confucians?), Saudi Arabian Muslims each must
adapt their religious beliefs (Koran) with non religious elements of the
modern world (technology, science, industrialization, military, economic
power)
b. secularization allows the adaptation of modern economic, political and other nonreligious activities outside religion
i. Latin Christendom was the first of the world’s major civilization to become
secularized
1. Much of the world is following Europe’s lead and traditional cultures
are becoming more secular
c. Challenges from without
i. Plague
ii. Mongol empire 1240 A.D.
1. held Russia for 200 years
iii. Ottoman Turks
1. took Constantinople in 1453
2. defeated the Serbian kingdom at battle of Kosovo in 1389 and took
over Balkans
d. Challenges from within
i. Competing sects within Christianity
ii. Changing values of a modern civilization
1. government, law, philosophy, science, arts, economic activity were
pursued with less regard to religion
2. power, beauty, wealth, knowledge, science were good in and of
themselves
Section 5 Disasters of the Fourteenth Century
a. The Black Death and its Consequences
i. Struck Europe about 1348
ii. disrupted marriage, family life
1. less people and time to marry (further decreased population)
iii. About 45% of population is wiped out
iv. Food production decreased
1. less able bodied people to do work
2. less food made people more susceptible to disease
v. Spread by air (pneumonic) and fleas from rats (bubonic)
1. Ring around the Rosie
vi. Effects of depopulation
1. higher wages for some (labor shortage)
2. disorganization
a. lords of the manor died
b. left some with no work (took to begging)
b. Revolts and Repression
1. Flanders
2. Jacqueries (French nickname for a peasant) in 1358
3. England and Wat Tyler’s rebellion (Peasants Revolt)
a. large scale rebellion in 1381 that questioned the whole
structure of society
i. brutally repressed
ii. led to more favorable position for the peasant class
1. fixed rents
2. peasant property-owning class emerged
iii. Kings and Taxes
1. kings needed money to pay for army & put down rebellions
2. Nobility resisted taxes through parliaments
a. 1300 kings of England and France tried to tax the
clergy(large land owners)
3. debasing currency led to inflation
a. kings ordered a given weight of gold to be ‘worth’ more
i. eventually led to inflation
c. Hundred Years War 1337 t0 1453 A.D.
1. between England and France
2. Cause
a. Britain controls much of France (William)
b. wine for wool
3. France is divided internally
4. Early battles are disastrous for France
a. Longbow
b. Poor logistics, weather hamper French
5. Joan of Arc
a. inspires France to make concerted effort against Britain
b. Burned at the stake by English at Rouen in 1431
(Charles VII did not try to help her)
c. Canonized (1920)
6. War is halted
a. conflict in England
b. Scots invade on behalf of France
c. French successes
7. Effects
a. Parliaments expand power as kings asked for more
money
b. Nationalism in England
c. War of the Roses (1455-1487)
i. Edward III (Plantagenet)
1. Had four sons
ii. Lancaster Red Rose
iii. York White Rose
iv. Tudor (Pink)
d. Troubles in the Medieval Church
i. Church at its zenith in 1300
ii. Edward I of England and Philip the Fair of France (1290s) issued taxes
on land of Church
iii. Boniface VIII prohibited taxes on Church by civil ruler
1. 1302 he issued the Unan Sanctam (every human creature was
subject to Roman pontiff
iv. Philip the Fair arrests the Pope but the Pope dies
1. French Cardinals elects a new Pope and the Pope stays at
Avignon on the lower Rhone River (Babylonian Captivity)
2. Papacy becomes of tool of the French king
3. Status of the papacy is in question
v. 1347 French cardinals/anti French cardinals elect their own popes (one
living in Rome, other in Avignon)
e. The Great Schism of the west goes on for 40 years
1. 1387 two Popes are elected by the cardinals
ii. Extravagance of the Popes brought criticism
1. who has the keys?
a. Created great uncertainty
f. Reponses to Crisis
i. Mass neurosis
1. some become self indulgent
2. others preoccupied with death
a. plague still ravaging Europe
i. Dance of Death, Black Mass, witchcraft, The
Order of the Flagellants, anti-Semitism
g. Lollards and Hussites
i. William Langland -humble cleric questioned the hypocrisy of the high
Church with the poor and suffering in his book, Piers Plowman (1360s);
social injustice
1. John Wycliff
a. English clergyman who gives a voice to the Lollards
(who were poor and illiterate)
i. Said that the organized Church might be
unneeded for salvation
ii. Translated the Bible into English
2. Jan Huss
a. Slavic against German religious agitation
3. Both were branded as heretics (unacceptable deviations from the
true Church doctrine)
a. call for reform spreads
h. The Conciliar Movement
i. 1409 Council at Pisa elected a new Pope now there are three
ii. 1414 Council at Constance
1. end the schism
2. they discourage heresy
a. reform the church from top to bottom
b. Huss is executed
iii. Martin V is made Pope the others step down
1. he dissolves the Council of Constance and refuses to reform
i. Church Corruption and Indulgences
i. indulgences- get out of hell free card (costs $)
1. their sale was encouraged by Boniface VIII in 1300
ii. nepotism- appointment of family members to Church offices
iii. simony- the buying or selling of Church offices
iv. mistresses
j. The Renaissance Popes
i. Nicholas V, Pious II, Innocent VIII, Alexander VI, Julius II, Leo X
ii. Modern Popes with strong secular ties
1. men of their times, patrons of the arts
2.6: The Renaissance
1. Introduction
a. Renaissance – “rebirth”
iii. Connection to the classical age of Greece and Rome
1. saw Middle Ages as time of darkness
iv. they invented the concept of Ancient and Modern
v. a new era in thought and feeling
vi. New topics of study – “humanities”
vii. Quattrocento (Italians call the 15th Century)
b.
c.
d.
e.
viii. Rennaissance was High culture
1. Only affected limited number
ix. Renaissance Italy is where almost purely secular attitude 1st appears
The Italian Cities and the New Conception of Life
x. Primary focus of Renaissance was on moral and civic issues of what
ideal humans should do/be like
xi. Proximity helps Italy prosper with trade
1. Centrally located between East and West
2. Gained foothold on trade during Crusades with Arabs
xii. Merchants control of trade routes generated wealth
1. Wealth built financial institutions
2. Banks – Sforza, Fugger, Medici
Italian City – States
xiii. Independent, intrigue
1. Popes were in Avignon or embroiled in Great Schism
2. Florence, Venice, Genoa governed as republics
xiv. Florence
1. talented citizens
a. population of 60, 000
b. grown wealthy in late MA from woolen production
c. produced Dante, Petrarch, Boccacio, Machiavelli,
Leonardo
d. like Athens it lost its republican liberty and creativity
2. Medici Family – Giovanni, Cosimo, Catherine
a. Giovanni (1360-1429) was merchant and banker
b. Lorenzo the Magnificent (1449-1492) known as poet,
patron of arts
c. Two Medici women became queens of France
Secular conception of life
xv. Italians doubted that a quiet, contemplative life was greater than an
active, involved, wild life
xvi. They were captivated with the expression of the vast human powers
xvii. Less attention to the sacred messages of Christianity and its leaders
1. hermitage, poverty, contemplation are rejected
2. action, wealth, activity are embraced
3. Individualism
a. virtu – vigor b. Leonardo Bruni wrote in 1433 “The whole glory of man
lies in activity.”
Individualism
xviii. A new civic consciousness or sense of public duty was expressed
xix. Writings of Cicero were valid
xx. Emphasized the outstanding attainments of extraordinary men
xxi. A great man shaped his own destiny
1. had virtu (possessed by most aggressive males)
2. excelled in all that he did
a. Benvenuto Cellini
xxii. Secular art
1. realism, space and time
2. Architecture reflected neo-classical design
a. Brunelleschi’s Duomo of Florence
3. Free standing sculpture – portraiture
a. Medieval sculptor was confined to the niches of
cathedrals
b. Renaissance artists
i. Humans were primary subject
f.
ii. Free standing so that entire figure could be
admired
iii. Extensive use of the nude (paragon of animals)
4. Painting with perspective, boundaries
a. Brunelleschi invented linear perspective
b. Da Vinci perfected chiascurro, invented sfumato
c. Idea was to tell a story and allow the viewer to enter into
the wold of the painting
d. Importance of portraying the individual human
i. Bellini’s condottiere viewers see a strong, real,
and vivid personality
1. individualism wasn’t important in the
medieval art
e. Early art
f. Later art
g. Reactionary Movement
i. Led by Savonarola (a priest)
ii. Started the Bonfire of the Vanities
Humanism: The Birth of Literature
xxiii. Literary connection with the classical authors
1. medievals had studied and written
a. hymns, Song of Roland, legends of King Arthur written
2. Renaissance writers saw it as their life’s work
a. Wrote to resolve questions, amuse themselves (secular
reasons)
3. studied Latin and Greek
a. liked the Latin of Cicero instead of the Scholastic of
medieval
4. recaptured the texts of the past
a. discovered a new rage of interests, politics, civic
questions without religious overtones
5. use of the vernacular
a. most wrote in Latin and Italian (Florence) too
b. language of Dante’s Divine Comedy
c. vernacular=common spoken language
6. Petrarch first modern man of letters
a. Florentine exile, son of merchant, traveler of France and
Italy, trained in law, clergy
b. Loved Cicero, Augusine
c. Wrote about life, beauty, what a good life should be
(SECULAR)
7. Boccaccio
a. Decameron (in Italian)
b. Designed to entertain and teacher human character
8. Coluccio Salutati – history serves the state
a. Was chancellor of France in 1375
b. Florence threatened by Milan (Visconti Family)
c. Wrote to inspire civic consciousness by glorifying
Florentine liberty
d. Bruni (his successor) wrote history of Florence in
narrative form
i. History can be useful to heighten sentiment and
collective consciousness (not quite nationalism
yet)
9. Christine de Pisan
a. Helped spread humanist themes in France in early 1400s
b. Showed woman could be intellectuals
10. Lorenzo Valla
a. Developed a critical method of evaluating the written
word
b. Donation of Constantine
i. He prove that this was a fraud by showing that
phrases and language use were not used at that
time
c. Pico della Mirandola
i. Claimed that he could summarize all human
knowledge in 900 theses by using Chaldaic,
Arabic, Hebrew, Grecian, Egyptian, Latin
sources
1. looking for truth in other places besides
the Bible
g. Schooling, Manners, and Family Life
xxiv. Secondary education developed
1. idea of putting different age groups, levels into separate classes,
own teacher, promotion
2. curriculum
a. learned Latin, Greek
i. in order to read ancient manuscripts
b. Rhetoric to heighten communication skills
c. Purpose of education was to develop personality and
character (virtu)
xxv. Etiquette
1. Medievals acted like big children (belched, spat, sulked, etc.)
2. Baldissere Castiglione
a. wrote The Courtier
i. how to be a gentleman, or lady
ii. clothes should be neat, movements graceful,
poised, affable, athletic, dance, appreciate
music, be familiar with literature (but not a
nerd), have effortless superiority in all
iii. women should be polite, pleasing to men
3. Marriage
a. Arranged in order to enrich family
b. Usually 18 for women, 30 for established man
c. Strong gender divisions
xxvi. Politics
1. no centralizing force in Italy
2. condottieri-private armed bands did fighting for city states b/c
citizens would not
3. “Italian Cunning” was byword
a. To survive deep intrigue was practiced
4. Niccolo Machiavelli – The Prince (1513)
a. Dreamed that citizens of all Italy would be like the
Romans (virile, citizen soldiers, patriotic, dignified)
b. Had to look to France (Loius XI), Spain (Ferdinand),
England (Henry VII), to find heroes
c. Prince is a “how to rule for dummies” handbook
d. promoted strong centralized state
e. separated politics from theology and moral philosophy
i. described what effective rulers actually did, not
what they ought to do
ii. anticipates scientific objectivity
iii. they keep or break promises, are or are not
merciful
iv. Rulers must be both the Fox and the Lion
(strong and cunning)
xxvii. Italy’s weak position in the face of rising nations left it vulnerable to
attack and unorganized
1. Other countries will vie for control of Italy
2. Italy will lose its privileged economic position
2.7: The Renaissance Outside Italy
1. Introduction
a. Renaissance in northern Europe was less of a break with existing culture
b. Religious element was stronger
c. Development of vernacular was stronger than identification with Latin or
Greek
2. Religious Scholarship and Science
a. Study of Greek and Latin was intended to help better understand the Bible
b. Universities, rejected by southern humanists continued to grow in northern
Europe
i. 14 were established in German
c. Germany is major center of commerce
i. Undefined language and cultural region
1. politically not centralized (even with Holy Roman Emperor)
ii. Fugger family helped develop the financial infrastructure
iii. Mining was developed
iv. Johann Muller (Regiomontanus) laid foundations for a mathematical
conception of universe
v. Printing press – Gutenberg – movable type
vi. Flemish school of painting
1. Jan Van Eyck invented oil based paint (linseed oil)
vii. Copernicus – heliocentric universe
viii. Cartography
ix. Dr. Faustus
1. legendary figure who supposedly sold his soul for knowledge
1. in writing of Christopher Marlowe (1593), Goethe and
Oswald Spenger (Decline of the West in 1918
1. Faustian word used to describe inordinate
ambitions of modern man
x. The development of the concept of controlling the natural world was
more northern
xi. The development of the concept of controlling the mind was more
southern
xii. Combining these ideas establishes the modern intellect or Renaissance
spirit
3. Mysticism and Lay Religion
a. Religious interests stay alive in the north
b. In the south religious interests became more a stylized practice of Glorifying God
through works – art
c. German mystics promote personal communion with God
i. Meister Eckhart (d. 1327) and Thomas a Kempis (d. 1471)
1. essence of mysticism is belief that individual soul could (in
solitude) commune with God
1. no need of reason, word, mass, sacraments, priests, or
the Church
1. this attracted Luther
d. Lay persons are staying out of the Church and refusing Holy Orders
e. The lack of new, reform oriented priests hinders the Churches ability to reform
itself within
i. Impatient and headstrong lay leaders, local rulers
f. Gerard Groote
i. 1374 founded the Sisters and the Brother of the Common Life
1. took no vows, free to leave
2. relieved the poor and taught
3. established modern schools
4. Separate grades and classes
5. emphasized Literacy, Character development
1. called Modern Devotion
4. Erasmus of Rotterdam (1466-1536)
a. Most notable figure of the entire humanist movement
b. Promoted reform of the clergy from within
i. Education, enlightened discussion and gradual moral improvement
ii. Against violence
iii. Promoted use of the vernacular to promote Christian ideals
c. In Praise of Folly
i. Satirizes all worldly pretensions and ambitions
ii. Emphasizes mildness, reasonableness, tolerance, restrain, good manners,
scholarly understanding, peace, critical and reforming zeal that worked
to make people think without shouting or ranting
d. Achieved international stature
e. Advised heads of state
f. Guest lectured at universities
g. Challenged the Church to do better in reform efforts
h. Never advocated breaking away from Rome
2.8: The “New Monarchies”
1. Introduction
a. Wars and feudal rebellion weakened much of Europe by the 1400s
b. Efforts by rulers to stabilize their territories led to the “New Monarchs”
i. Not really new in style
ii. New in organizing the modern states of Europe
1. Guarantee of law
2. Heredity is the legitimate form of power
3. Appeal to the rising middle class tired of feudal feuds
4. Parliaments are labeled breeders of conflict
5. Kings use taxes to hire private armies
a. Long bow and pike made peasants competitive with
nobility on the field
6. Kings had to break down the mass of feudal common law and
custom
7. Kings adopt Roman law and title majesty and/or sovereign
a. Law maker, enforcer, and judge on behalf of the people
2. The New Monarchy in England, France, and Spain
a. England’s New Monarchy
i. Tudor family comes to power after the War of the Roses
1. Henry VII 1485-1509
2. Law against livery and maintenance are passed against the
weakened barons
a. Prevented great lords from maintaining private armies
and wearing their livery or insignia
3. Star Chamber, Kings private council meets and Parliament is
ignored
a. Met in room decorated with stars
b. Decided property disputes, infraction of public peace
c. Accepted as it kept order, later despised
d. No jury present
b. France’s New Monarchy
i. Louis XI of the Valois family
1. French kings had continued to expand power and influence from
the epicenter of Paris
2. Louis XI expanded the boarders of France
3. Build up a royal army
4. Controlled taxes
5. French monarchy has control over the clergy
a. 1516 Louis XI and Pope Leo X
i. Concordat of Bologna
1. Rescinded the Pragmatic Sanction
1. Pope receives annates ($ from
French ecclesiastics)
2. Louis XI appoints bishops and
abbots
ii. Major reason why France does not turn to
Protestantism
c. Aragon and Castile :Spain’s New Monarchy
i. Aragon and Castile are the main territories of Spain
ii. Ferdinand and Isabella unite Spain through marriage
iii. True unifying force was spirit of duty to Catholicism and crusade against
the Moors
iv. The Inquisition served as a unifying legal presence
v. Church served as common denominator for Spain
1. Religious conformity
2. “Spanishness” was a sense of Catholicity
a. Spanish had been most tolerant of Europeans
b. Jews and Moors are expelled from Spain 1492
i. Jews had been expelled from England 1290
ii. Jews had been expelled from France 1306
1. Expulsions are related to early sense of
nationalism in group out group
vi. Some Jewish and Moorish families place a veneer of Catholicism over
their public lives “Moriscos” (Christians of Moorsih background) and
“Marranos”(Christians of Jewish background)
1. Fear of the “unfaithful” fueled the Inquisition
a. Thousands were tortured
b. Rigid (Doctrinaire) Catholicism and Spanish
Nationalism fused into one: you were a Spanish
nationalist if you were super-Catholic
vii. Spain becomes the reforming force in the Catholic Church
viii. Spain exports Catholicism to the “New” world
ix. Spanish become the “defenders of the faith” and a crusade mentality
prevails
3. The Holy Roman Empire and The Hapsburg Supremacy
a. The New Monarchy in the HRE
i. Three Kinds of States
1. Princely states
a. hereditary dynasties – Brandenburg
2. Ecclesiastical (large amount of territory)
a. Abbacies
3. Imperial free cities (about 50)
a. Dominated commerce and finance
ii. Imperial knights (lords of small estates)
1. sworn fealty to the HRE
b. Emperor
i. Elected by Princes
1. Princes were jealous of their local liberties and voted to protect
them
ii. Electors dwindled to seven
1. Count Palatine, Duke of Sazony, Margrave of Bradenburg, King
of Bohemia, archibops of Mainz, Trier, and Cogne
iii. 1452: the Hapsburgs are elected from Austria
1. Nearly uninterrupted reign until 1806
c. The Rise of the Hapsburgs
i. Maximilian I 1493-1519
1. Efforts of HRE to centralize power fail because of strong states
rights
2. Hapsburgs use marriages to grow family influence
ii. Maximilian marries heiress of Burgundy and Netherlands
1. Son of Maximilian I and Mary is Philip
a. Mary is heiress of dukes of Burgundy (Netherlands,
Burgundy)
2. Philip marries Joanna of Spain (heiress to Ferdinand and
Isabella)
a. Son of Philip is Charles I of Spain
b. Charles Inherits Austria, Netherlands, Burgundy, Spain,
New World Holdings
i. Charles is elected HRE (in 1519) over
“Germany” and becomes Charles V
c. Charles brother Ferdinand is elected king of Hungary
and Bohemia
3. Hapsburgs control most of Europe and universal monarch is
feared by other European states
a. balance of power
d. The stage is set for revolution
i. Protestantism is the spark that sets off the wars of religion
ii. decline of the church
iii. lay religious leaders staying out of the church
iv. Rise of centralizing monarchies
v. resistance of feudal elements to centralizing monarch
vi. Popes fear of church councils
vii. Much divided Germany
viii. Turkish threat
ix. zealous actions of Spain
x. Charles V threat of universal monarch
2.9: The Protestant Reformation
1.
Introduction
a. Three factors contributing to the religious conflicts of the 1500s
i. Dissatisfaction with the opulence of the Church by the poor
1. religious ideas are mixed with class conflict - Mennonites
ii. Drift toward autonomy of independent city-states fostered disconnect
between the middle-class and the Church
1. Church is feudal in organization and city-states are moving
toward modern organizational models – Calvinists
iii. Competition between local kings and lords with the Church over
property, taxes, jurisdiction and influence
1. Kings wanted to master their territories
b. Kings and city-states realizes their demands
c. The lowest class does not
d. Religious lines are drawn and over a century of war Protestantism and
Catholicism begin to co-exist 1560 to 1648
2. Martin Luther
a. Found little personal assurance in salvation through the sacraments
b. Peace of mind came through “justification by faith” rather than works
c. Challenge to indulgences “95 Theses”
i. Revolutionary idea that penance and the priesthood are unnecessary to
achieve absolution
d. Challenges the authority of the Pope
i. Claims there is no earthly authority of God
ii. The Bible must be read and interpreted individually
e. Luther’s perspectives
i. Two sacraments
ii. No purgatory
iii. Transubstantiation by “presence”
iv. Clergy should marry
v. End monasticism
vi. State should direct religious affairs of the state
vii. Luther was excommunicated
1. Diet of Worms: appeared but did not recant
2. Found sanctuary in the dominions of the Northern German
Princes
f. Luther’s challenges spread
i. Some use the opportunity to advance personal interests
1. Land, liberty
2. Extended Luther’s ideas about religious affairs to state affairs
ii. Luther modifies position in face of social rebellions
1. Clergy has place over laity for instruction
2. Submissiveness to the state
g. States in the HR Empire respond to HR Emperor’s aggressive actions against
Lutheranism
i. Demand among their liberties autonomy in religious matters
ii. Reform the church in their area
iii. Secularized church property
h. French response
i. Alliance with Schmalkald
ii. Overtures extended to the Ottomans
iii. Intrigue with Lutherans
iv. Keep Germany divided
i. Papacy’s response
i. Delay action and avoid a Church Council
j. Result
i. Germany falls into civil war
ii. Peace of Augsburg 1555
1. Victory for Lutheranism and states rights
a. States get to choose religion
b. Clergy that convert must leave property of Church
iii. Lutheranism spreads to Scandinavia
3. John Calvin
a. Born in 1509, trained as priest and lawyer
b. Had conversion experience at 24
c. Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536) addresses the whole world (not just
Germany as Luther had done)
d. French origin
e. Institutes of the Christian Religion
i. Challenges to the Church found application in many areas around the
world
f. Rejected consubstantiation in favor of symbolic communion
g. Predestination
i. Salvation is by God’s grace – he then destines some to be saved
1. the elect
2. Lives must reflect the characteristics of one “chosen”
h. Christianize the state
i. Presbyteries replaced bishops and brought lay figures into the church making the
leadership of the church more secular
j. Still the Calvinists were the reverse of secular in their ideas to Christianize all
society
k. Sets up a community in Switzerland
i. Elders ruled Geneva
ii. Repressed frivolous living
iii. Exiled non-conformers
iv. Iconography was banned
v. Black apparel
vi. Singing without instruments
l. Geneva becomes the capital of Protestantism
i. Reformers from around the world study in Geneva and return to their
homes to spread Calvinist ideas
1. Puritans, Huguenots, Presbyterian, Congregationalist
m. Calvinism and democracy
i. The state is subject to moral judgment
ii. Mechanisms of democracy evident in election of Presbyteries
iii. Democratic view on life roles (trades/professions) as all work was
“Godly”
n. Many nobles adopted Calvinism to challenge established authorities
4. The Reformation in England
a. Henry VIII
i. Devout Catholic
ii. Needed an heir to extend Tudor rule
iii. Asked Pope to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon was aunt of
Charles the V
iv. Henry took over Canterbury, disestablished Rome and took a new wife –
Anne Boleyn
v. 1534 Parliament passes the Act of Supremacy making Henry the head of
the Church of England
1. Thomas More refused to take oath of supremacy and was
executed
vi. Closed the monasteries
vii. Seized Church lands and established gentry
viii. Maintained “Catholic” rites – transubstantiation
ix. Soon to be challenged within England from Protestants
b. Edward VI is Protestant but dies young
c. Mary – daughter of Catherine of Aragon
i. Tries to re-Catholicize England
ii. Marries Philip of Spain –
iii. Burns 300 Protestants at the stake
iv. Unpopular queen dies young
d. Elizabeth I 1558 – daughter of Anne Boleyn
i. Could not be Catholic – illegitimate
ii. English Church is run by the crown through Parliament
iii. English replaces Latin
iv. Much doctrine was vague
v. Established Church of England over Ireland
5. Consolidation of Protestantism by 1560
a. The institution of Latin Christendom was broken
b. All Protestants
i. Rejected papal authority
ii. Rejected special character of the priesthood
iii. Protestant clergy could marry
iv. No monasteries
v. Replaced Latin with vernacular
vi. Reduced sacraments to two or three
vii. Denied transubstantiation
viii. Gave up the confessional and priestly absolution
ix. Denied the concept of purgatory
x. Gave up the saints and cult of the Virgin
xi. True source of Christianity was the Holy Scripture
xii. Allowed private judgment in matters of conscience
c. Economic motivations of Protestant movements were secondary to religious
convictions
d. Protestantism and the family
i. Parenthood become honorable for Protestant leaders
ii. Autonomy of women was lost and domestic roles defined
2.10: Catholicism Reformed and Reorganized
1. The call for reform
a. Counter Reformation
i. Reform responded explicitly to the Protestant challenge
ii. Counter activity aimed at the elimination of Protestantism
b. Reform movements focused on a church council
c. Charles V joins the conciliar movement in effort to unite Germany
d. Francis I
i. Fears potential Universal monarchy of Hapsburgs
1. Encourages the Protestant princes in Germany
2. Discourages the Pope from conciliar movement
e. Council of Trent 1545-1563
i. Not well attended (as low as 20-30 when 500 had attended earlier
councils)
ii. International council may becoming anachronistic
iii. Authority of bishops is denied
iv. Papal power is not limited
1. No act of the council would be valid unless accepted by the Pope
2. Steps toward 1870 proclamation of Popes infallibility
v. Council avoids fragmentation of Church into state Churches
vi. Doctrine
1. Justification by faith and works
2. Seven sacraments are reaffirmed
3. 3. Priesthood is spiritually apart from laity
4. Transubstantiation
5. Vulgate (St. Jerome in 4th Century) is only true Bible
6. Church interpretation of Bible is superior to personal
7. Latin is preserved as language of the Church
8. Celibacy, Monasticism, Purgatory upheld
9. Correct practice of indulgences restated
10. Saints and Virgin can intercede on behalf of faithful
vii. Reform of Monastic orders
1. Bishop must live in dioceses
a. Control over mendicant friars
2. Pluralism is addressed
3. Competency of Church officials
a. Seminary should be established to train priests
2. The Counter Crusade
a. Call for reform also had a grass roots movement of support
b. Sack of Rome led to call for reform of Papacy
i. Reform Popes follow Renaissance Popes
c. New Religious orders begin – strictness, awe, reverence
i. Jesuits
d. Missionary zeal
i. Poor, Natives in New World, Slaves
e. Spain is epicenter of Counter Crusade
f. Ignatius Loyola
i. Military background
ii. Founded the Society of Jesus
1. More active order
2. Iron discipline
3. Favored Rationality
4. Famous schoolmasters
5. Worked closely with leadership of Europe
6. Supported ultramontanism
a. “The white which I see is black if the Pope so decrees.”
g. Catholic Church goes on offensive
i. Support Catholics in England against Elizabeth I
ii. Returned many to the fold as reform is achieved
iii. Censorship – Index of Prohibited Books last until (1960)
iv. Inquisition – Spanish and Roman courts
1. torture
2. burning alive
h. Most influential component in religious matters was the state
i. If Protestants won control of the state the people become Protestant
ii. If Catholics retained control of governments Protestants remained a
minority
iii. Catholic states did not unite to wipe out Protestantism and wars leave
Europe divided along religious lines