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SOCIAL 35 AP Review Chapters 9-12
Enlightenment Philosophes and French Revolution
1789
Preconditions
A. Enlightenment philosophy / theory
1. Locke, Montesquieu
2. 18th century liberalism
B. Seven Years’ War
1. France defeated by Britain
2. Territorial / commercial interests in North America (aid colonists)
3. Results in financial crisis for French Monarchy
A. American Revolution
1. French troops and supplies sent to colonists fighting the British
2. Jacques Necker (1732-1748) French King minister of Finance
3. Necker defended financing, Charles- Alexandre de Calonne new finance minister
4. Calonne spent even more money, for Loius XIV chateaus(Versailles). called assembly of
notables
B. Assembly of notables (1787)
1. To discuss tax reform and other financial mismanagement
2. Interest payments on French National debt exceeded 50% of National income
3. Refused to allow taxation of the nobility
I.
Precipitants
A. Problems with the Ancien Regime (Absolute monarchy)
1. Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette
2. Inequities with the monarchy
B. Polarization of social classes
1. First estate
a. Clergy
b. Tax exempt “Voluntary gifts”
2. Second estate
a. Nobility / Aristocracy
b. Taxed peasantry for profit
3. Third estate (commoners) “the strength of France”
a. The Bourgeoisie (middle class)
1. What is the Third Estate? Abbe’ Siyess’
a. “The most useful class in French society”
b. Represented peasants & working classes
2. Rising social and economic status
3. despised aristocracy and absolute monarchy
b. Peasants
1. Wanted to abolish seigniorial system
2. subjected to extensive taxation
3. rising bread prices
C. Estates General called (May 5, 1789)
1. Monarchy orders meeting at Versailles, representatives from all estates
2. Dispute emerges over minimal third estate representation (Gov’t oppression)
a. Louis XVI doubled number of representatives, yet no voting rights
b. Under action of Necker
a. Third Estate representatives typically Lawyers, Gov’t officials
D. National Assembly (1789-1791)
1. Third estate declared themselves the representative body of France
2. Locked out of Versailles by Louis XVI
3. Convene at an indoor tennis court “Tennis court oath”
a. vow not to disband until Constitution has been written
4. National Assembly recognized as Parliament of France
a. Remaining estates join
b. Majority of representation by the third estate
c. Abolish Feudal privileges
5. Developed a limited monarchy
a. Promoted economic freedom
b. Abolished guilds and workers combinations
II. Revolution
A. Storming the Bastille
(July 14, 1789)
1. A prison symbolizing the oppression of the Ancien Regime
2. Angry crowds fired upon and overrun Bastille searching for munitions
3. “Is it a revolt?” “No, a revolution.”
4. Bastille falls to Parisian revolutionaries, Paris is lost to the King
5. saves the National Assembly
B. Le Grande Peur “The great fear”
1. Peasant uprisings across French countryside
2. The “Famine plot” to starve out peasants into submission
3. Aristocracy fled France
C. National guard established
1. Led by Marquis de Lafayette
2. Units responsible to municipal courts
D. Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (August 27, 1789)
1. Issued by the National Assembly
2. First attempt at a representative Government
3. Based on Liberalism with goal of abolishing class system
4. ‘Liberty, Equality, Fraternity’ Freedom of speech, press, religion, unlawful arrest
5. Proclaimed the sovereignty of the people
E. “March to Versailles”
(October 5 1789)
1. 7,000 peasants in search of bread
2. Attempted to kill Marie Antoinette
a. Lafayette intervened
3. Royal family is forced to return to Tuileries palace (Paris)
F. Escape to Varennes
1. Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette attempt to escape to Austria
2. Arrested and forced to return to Paris
G. Declaration of Pillnitz (1791)
1. Austria and Prussia willing to intervene to assist in counter-revolution (backfires)
a. Leopold II (Austrian emperor: Marie Antoinette’s brother)
b. William II (Prussian King)
H. Legislative Assembly / Constitution of 1791
1. All law making power given to Legislative Assembly
a. Abolished powers of the French nobility
2. sought an end to the wars of conquest
3. Ended Ancien Regime
4. Established constitutional (limited) monarchy
5. Other influences
a. Judicial system
1. Abolished Lettres de Cachet
2. Allowed open public trials
3. developed court of final appeal (high court)
b. Local Government
1. France divided into 83 departments
2. Internal tariffs abolished
3. political factions emerge: Jacobins, Girondins, Sans-Cullottes
b. Religion (policies led to discontent)
1. Church property confiscated to back “Assignats” (paper bonds – becomes a
currency)
2. Clergy forced to take oath of loyalty
3. Civil Constitution established a National church
I. Brunswick Manifesto (July 1792)
1. Austria and Prussia issued warnings not to harm the royal family (backfires)
III. Reactions and Response
A. National Assembly disbands
B. Legislative Assembly created
1. Jacobin political club of Paris
2. resounding desire to rid other nations of monarchy
C. Tuileries palace seized by Parisian Sans-Cullottes
1. King and family fled to Legislative assembly
2. Suspended from offices and imprisoned
IV. Second revolution
A. September massacres
(1792)
1. Crowds overthrow and killed prison inmates (Conspirators)
B. The Republic (National Convention)
1. National convention declares France a Republic
2. France declares war on Austria
3. Abolished the monarchy entirely
a. Louis XVI sentenced to death for treason
b. Guillotine “The peoples axe”
c. Law of suspects
4. Desire to create a new culture and break with the past
5. France declares war on Britain, Holland and Spain (Second coalition)
6. Power between the Girodists and the Mountain (Jacobins: “defenders of the poor”)
a. Jacobin leaders: Maximillian Robespierre, Danton, Marat, Carnot
b. Jacobins join with Sans-Cullottes to garnish support and centralize power
c. Institute: The law of the maximum: Setting price ceilings for products (beginnings of
socialist ideology)
C. The reign of terror (1793-1794)
1. Robespierre establishes Committee on Public Safety
a. courts established as well
2. Widespread imprisonment and executions for “political crimes”
3. Dictatorial in context
4. Development of Nationalism
5. Danton believed that the threat was over and called for an end to policies of Robespierre
a. Robespierre had Danton and followers executed
b. “ If you are for the Republic, protection, against it, death” Robespierre
6. Moderates in the Republic claimed Robespierre to be a terrorist and executed
a. Supporters executed and Jacobins overthrown
D. Thermidorian reaction
1. National Convention
a. Abolished economic controls, printed paper money (Assignats)
b. Inflation
c. Sans-Cullottes revolt suppressed by Army
d. Return of Catholicism
c. Second Constitution written (1795)
1. Legislative Assembly chooses five man executive branch
2. The “Directory”
VI. The Directory
(1795-1799)
A. Organization
1. Five directors elected to executive position
a. Each holds the Chief executive office in turn
b. Middle class holds political authority, voting and office to property holders
2. Parliament (two houses)
a. Council of Five hundred
b. Council of Elders
3. Constitution of Year III
a. Mass uprisings, ended by Napoleon Bonaparte
B. Results
1. Ends “democratic” (Representative) Government in France
2. 1797 elections were voided
3. Gradual return to dictatorship
4. Several Coups and rebellions
a. Directory maintained power
b. Supported by the military
5. Coup D’ Etat of 1799
a. Napoleon Bonaparte joined three of the Directors in a conspiracy
b. Forced to resign positions
c. Two remaining executive directors arrested
d. Napoleon Secured Gov’t buildings with his army
e. Legislature disbanded
f. Napoleon named “First council” of the Republic
d. Leads to the Consulate Government
6. Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolutions in France
a. Classic Conservatism, defended the inherited privileges of elite
b. “Enlightenment rationalism threatened the historic evolution of any nation by
undermining its monarchy, church and ruling elite.”
Napoleonic Era
I.
I.
Early career
A. Attended military school at Brienne
B. Became a Jacobin
C. Ended royalist uprising during the Thermidorian reaction
1. “Whiff of Grape shot”
D. Early military success against Austrians (1797) Italian campaigns
E. Attempt to occupy Egypt /India (source of British wealth)
1. Austria, Russia, Britain join to form the second coalition
2. French fleet defeated at the Battle of the Nile
3. Eventually defeats Turks in Egypt
Political policies
A. From Consulate to empire
1. Directory overthrown, Consulate Government established
a. Three Consuls replace the five directors
b. Bonaparte, Sieyes, Ducos
c. Bonaparte becomes “First Consul” (1799-1804)
1800
1.
2.
Strong executive authority
Devise a new constitution
a. approved by plebiscite (Vote of the people)
b. consul’s appointed:
1. Senate
2. Legislative Body: Vote on Laws
3. Tribunate (Council of State) Discuss legislation and laws
a. Eliminated in 1808
4. Asserted “Authority from above, confidence from below”
c. Napoleon named “Consul for Life” (1802)
d. Tribunate, Senate and people established empire
e. Napoleon crowned emperor / Napoleon I (1804-1815) – Revolution
comes full circle
f. “Enlightened Absolutism” Voltaire
g. Established political hierarchy based on service not blood
II. Social policies
A. Concordat (1801)
1. Made settlement with Catholic Church – acknowledged revolution
2. Goal: Detach church from ties to monarchy / Political leadership
3. Pope Pius VII appoints bishops by recommendation of first consul (State regulated)
4. State pays clerical salaries
5. In general freedom of religious practice (Jews & Protestants)
B. Civil Code of 1804 (Napoleonic code)
1. Counsul of state ordered to codify laws
2. Most articles concerned private property & security of wealth
3. Equality before the law (for Males)
4. Freedom of Religion, abolished serfdom
5. Familial influence, inheritance
a. Reasserted patriarchy, women as dependants
b. “Women should not be regarded as equal to men…nothing more than machines for
producing children.”
C. Institutions
1. Established the bank of France (1800)
a. Abandoned assignats (Backed by church lands)
b. Facilitated tax collection
2. Established state secondary schools (Lycees) 1802
a. Linking education to nationalism
b. Public university system developed (1808)
III. Military Policy
A. Second coalition: (Britain, Austria, Russia)
1. Austria defeated (June 1800)
a. France gains territory in Italy, Southern Netherlands
2. Russia fighting Ottoman empire
3. British sign “Peace of Amiens” (1802)
a. France regains captured colonies from Britain
4. Haitian revolution / independence
B. Third coalition forms (1805)
1. French fleet defeated at Battle of Trafalgar (Lord Admiral Horatio Nelson)
2. French victory over Austrians at Austerlitz
3. Napoleon organizes “Confederation of the Rhine” (Holy Roman Empire)
a. Austrians under King Frederick William III defeated at Jena & Berlin
4. Russian army defeated at Friedland
a. Napoleon met with Tsar Alexander
b. Sign Treaty of Tilsit
5. Austria invades Bavaria
(1809)
a. Napoleon captures Vienna, Wagram
6. “Continental system”
(1806)
a. Cut off Britain from colonial market
b. Economic warfare to blockade ports
c. Britain responds with “Orders in council”
7. Peninsular war
Spain (1808 – 1813)
a. Brother Joseph Bonaparte named King of Spain
b. Spanish and Portuguese guerilla warfare
c. British troops intervene led by Arthur Wellesley (Duke of Wellington)
1. Britain and United States enter war of 1812
d. Referred to as Napoleons ”Spanish Ulcer”
8. Invasion of Russia
(1812)
a. Opposed by Talleyrand
b. Napoleons “Grand Army” numbering 600,000 troops
c. Russians continued to disengage from confrontation (scorched earth)
d. Smolensk, Borodino, Napoleon wanted to conquer Moscow
e. Russians burned Moscow, Napoleon’s “Great retreat”
f. Russians attack at Berezina river
g. 40,000 troops return from Russian campaign
9. Series of defeats (Northern Italy, Spain)
10. Paris conquered by Prussia & Russia
IV. Later career / events
A. Napoleon deposed / exiled to Elba
1. Attempted suicide fails
2. Abdicated his throne
3. Treaty of Fontainbleau
B. Royalist Government established (Charter)
1. Restoration of limited constitutional monarchy in the person of Louis XVIII
2. “The Bourbon restoration”
C. Treaty of Paris
(May 1814)
1. France keeps lands prior to 1792
2. Gave up Austrian Netherlands, Dutch Rep., German and Italian states & Sitzer.
3. Also lost several Caribbean islands
4. Allied forces occupy France
5. Power vacuum: call for Congress of Vienna
D. 100 Days
1. Napoleon escapes, begins marching toward Paris
2. Louis XVIII Flees to Austrian Netherlands
3. Napoleon acquires Tuileries palace
4. Again wages war in Austrian Netherlands (Prussian & British)
5. Battle of Waterloo
(1815)
a. Wellington & Prussian armies flank and crush French armies
6. Napoleon exiled to Saint Helena
7. Dies in exile (Stomach cancer or Arsenic?) (1821) (Napoleon Bonaparte)
V. Social currents
A. Romanticism evolves as a reaction to the enlightenment (pastoral or nature longing)
1. Ludwig Von Beethoven (Music)
(Immortal Beloved)
2. Lord Byron, Wordsworth, Coleridge, Blake (Literature)
B. Women and Natural-law philosophy
1. Mary Wollstonecraft: Vindication of the Rights of Woman (Speil. 498)
2. Olympe de Gouge: Declaration of the rights of Woman and the Female Citizen
D. Rise of Nationalism
1.
2.
3.
German nationalism particularly
40 separate German states
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
Economic Advance, Social Unrest and Industrial Revolution
1770
I. Preconditions
A. Social and economic factors/ demand for manufactured goods
1. Atlantic economy develops
2. Canal system in England
3. Agricultural productivity increases (low food prices)
4. Effective banking system (Merchant capitalists)
5. Political stability/ Laws passed protecting private property
6. Established cottage industry “Putting out”
a. Produced skilled artisans
II. Background
A. Industrial revolution defined
1. Growth of invention and technical change
2. Shapes economic growth
III. Steam power
A. In past practices, wood is used for heat/ coal replaces wood
B. Steam engine developed
1. Integral to the Industrial revolution
2. Thomas Savary, Thomas Newcomen (Atmosphere engine)
a. Converted coal to steam power (Ineffective)
3. James Watt (1736-1819)
a. University of Glascow
b. Invented more effective use of steam power- Utilizing Newcomen’s design
c. Used in milling and draining mines
d. Leads to iron industry boom/ then applied to spinning/weaving
4. Henry Cort: Puddling furnace, rolling mills- burned away impurities in pig iron
C. Transportation and manufacturing assisted by steam engine
1. Rail cars
a. George Stephenson: Effective locomotive
b. Liverpool to Manchester: Other rail lines soon follow
c. Created a demand for labor
1. Growth of the middle class
2. Alters typical “class” system (society)
2. Steam Cars
D. Luddite Riots (1811-1812)
1. Luddites broke apart machines
2. Wanted a return to old economic and social order before mechanization
3. Believed the machines would put people out of work
I. Factory Growth
A. British textile industry
1. Grew from cottage industry
a. Human productivity could not keep up with demand
2. John Kay: Flying shuttle
3. James Hargreaves: Cotton Spinning Jenny
4. Richard Arkwright: Water frame
5. Edmund Cartwright: Powerloom
6. Cotton mills in turn are built
a. Foundling children used as a source of labor
II. Industrialists and Unions – Reactions to Industrialization
A. Cockerill family used British inventions to industrialize Belgium
1. Societe Generale and Banque Belgioque
2. Depositors invested in heavy industry
B. Fritz Harcourt: Engineering in Germany
1. Darmstandt Bank
C. Robert Owen: Scotland (1771-1858)
1. Grand National Consolidated Trades Union- eight hour work day (Failed)
2. Utopian Socialists
D. Peoples Charter, Chartist movement
1. All men should have right to vote, periodic elections, secret ballet, pay for MPs
(Failed) (Spiel 606)
III. Legislation in England
A. Combination Acts (1799-1800)
1. Outlawed unions and strikes
2. Repealed in 1824-Unions now tolerated
B. Factory Act (1833)
1. Set age and hour restrictions
a. Under 9 years of age
Elementary school
b. 9-13 years of age
8 Hours per day
c. 14-18
12 Hours per day
C. Mines Act (1842)
1. Prohibited underground work for all women and boys under 10 years of age
IV. Art and Literature
A. Art
1. Joseph Turner, Fire at Sea
2. Claude Monet, The Railway Bridge
3. Eduard Manet, Dejeuner sur L’herbe
B. Literature
1. Thomas Malthus, Essay on the Principle of Population
a. Postulated that population would grow faster than food supply
b. “positive checks” war, famine, death, etc.
2. David Ricardo, proposed wages would always remain at subsistence levels
3. Blake, Wordsworth, portrayed harsh working conditions
4. Ure, Chadwick, portrayed that Industrialization improved life
5. Friedrich Engels, The Condition of the Working Class in England
C. Architecture
1. 1851 Great Exposition
a. Crystal Palace
b. Built from Iron and glass
VIII. Social Impact:
A. Population Growth: Decline in death rates – food supply increase
1. Irish Famine (Potato) 1781-1845 Population four to eight million
a. One million died/ two million immigrated to U.S and England (spiel 596)
B. Growth of Cities/ Urbanization
1. Tenement housing/ Lack of sanitation
2. Edwin Chadwick (1800-1890) Report on the condition of Laboring Population of
Great Britain:
a. Proposed sanitation reforms
b. Helped formulate public health act/ Nat’l board of health
3. Emergence of Middle Class
a. Stemmed from demand for labor
b. Less rural Agrarian Society
c. Family Patterns- Men worked/ Women cared for family: Domestics
4. Harsh Working Conditions
a. Women/ Child labor (founding homes)
1. 2/3 of cotton industry (1830)
2. (Spielvogel 602-603)
IX. Conclusions and Generalizations
A. Britain led industrialized nations
1. Napoleonic wars slowed industrial growth in continental Europe
2. Other countries merely followed British lead/ Artisans immigrated
3. Influence of Calvinism, religious toleration
4. Followed by Belgium, Germany, United States, France
5. Britain controlled 20% of World’s industry (Mid 1800’s)
6. GNP rises exponentially, thus population also increases
B. All countries industrialized fairly similarly
C. Expands foreign trade
Conservative Order, Ideologies and Revolutions
I.
II.
1848
Post-Napoleonic Era
A. Peace Settlement (1814-1815) Congress of Vienna
1. France defeted by Quadruple alliance
a. Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, Austria
B. Congress of Vienna ‘The dancing congress”
1. Attempts to restore the order prior to the French Revolution
a. Desire to create lasting peace and sought balance of power
b. “Concert of Europe” to maintain status quo
1. Alliance created to curtail revolutionary activities
2. Bourbon restoration in France (Louis XVIII)
3. Arrange map so as not to upset the international order
4. Goal: Balance of power/ Equilibrium
c. Primarily directed by Klemons Von Metternich (Austria)
d. Robert Castlereagh ( Great Britain)
e. Charles Talleyrand (France) France restored to old boundaries
f. Tsar Alexander I (Russia) dies 1825
1. Decembrist revolt, group of Army officers demanded constitutional monarchy
2. Put down by successor Nicholas I
g. Territorial exchanges to maintain equilibrium
2. Prussia given territories in Rhine
3. Polish-Saxon territories proved critical
4. Congress system established (The second peace of Paris)
a. International conferences to preserve “equilibrium” on balance of power issues
C. Metternichian system - Diet of Germanic Confederation
1. Believed liberalism was responsible for insurrection and revolution
2. Karlsbad decrees (1819)
a. Repressive policies of censorship and informers in German confederation
b. Austria is multinational and diverse, precursor to nationalism
Liberalism (Classical)
A. Based on the principles of liberty and equality, John Locke, John S. Mill, Jeremy Bentham
B. Sought representative Gov’t. and individual freedoms
C. Individual theories
1. Adam Smith (1723-1790) (Physiocrat)
a. Scottish Philosophy professor – Grandfather of Capitalism
b. Wrote Wealth of Nations
c.
2.
3.
4.
Inquiry into nature and causes of national wealth, wanted economic freedom and
self interest
d. First formulated Laissez-Faire: economy should be left unregulated – Invisible
Hand (decisions made with individual economic freedom and self-interest – not
government)
Thomas Malthus (1766-1834)
a. Essay on the Principles of Population: Population grows- food supply suffers
b. Famine/Disease law of nature
c. Influential economic writer
David Ricardo
a. Principles of Political economy
b. “Iron Law of Wages”
c. Population growth would impede growth in wages
John Stuart Mill On Liberty (utilitarianism) – ‘the rights of my fist extend to the bridge of
your nose’ (states that it is acceptable for someone to harm himself as long as he is not
harming others)
III.
Nationalism
A. Dependant upon the principles of cultural unity and political boundaries (Nap. Wars)
1. Sharing similar language, history and geography (cultural unity into political stability)
2. “We-They” theory of national superiority and mission
3. Desire to match state boundaries with cultural hegemony
a. Common language and traditions foster unity and loyalty
b. Theory of cultural and racial superiority
IV.
Socialism
A. Background
1. French Utopian socialists (did not believe in violent class Revolution) named by Marx,
who criticized “not based on science.”
a. Henri de Saint-Simon (1760-1825) “Key to progress was social organization”- A
cooperative community
b. Charles Fourier (1772-1837) proposed self-sufficient communities “Communes”
c. Louis Blanc (1811-1882) Organization of Work Gov’t. should back employment
d. Jules Michelet (1846) The People
e. Jospeh Proudhon (1809-1865) What is Property? Profits stolen from workers
f. Flora Tristan (1803-1844) Workers Union combine socialism/ feminism
g. Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) The Condition of the Working Class in England
B. Karl Marx (1818-1883)
1. The Communist Manifesto (1848) “Marxism” (Spiel. 667)
a. Believed class revolt was part of historical evolution
b. Revolution would bring about socialist change
c. Economic relationships were the driving force of change
1. Sought many of principles aforementioned French utopian socialists
2. Predicted that the proletariat (worker) would end bourgeoisie (capitalist/investor)
through class revolution
3. “Society…is a history of class struggles.”
4. “Working Men of all countries, unite.” “From each according to his ability, to each
according to his need”
V.
Romanticism
A. A reaction to the enlightenment and classicism
B. Represented imagination of society
C. Saw nature as powerful
D. Literature
a. William Wordsworth (1770-1850)
1. Attended Cambridge, influenced by Rousseau
2. Lyrical Ballads, Daffodils
b. Walter Scott (1771-1832)
c. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832)
d. Victor Hugo (1802-1885) Hunchback of Notre Dame, Hernani
1. Style contrasts to Wordsworth
e. Amandine Aurore Lucie Dupin (1804-1876) (George Sand)
Lelia, semi-autobiography, wrote 80 novels
f. Percy Bysse Shelly (1792-1822) Promethius Unbound
g. Loro Byron (1788-1840) Shilde Harold’s Pilgrimage
E. Art
a. Eugene Delacroix (1798-1863) Liberty Leading the People, Massacre at Chios
b. Jospeh Turner (1775-1851) Depicts power of nature, Railroad Bridge, Rain Steam and
Speed
c. John Constable (1776-1837) Depicts gentle nature
d. Caspar David Friedrich (1774-1840) Man and Women Gazing at the moon
F. Music
a. Frederic Chopin, composer of primarily piano concertos
b. Franz Liszt (1811-1886) Influential pianist and composer
c. Ludwig von Beethoven (1770-1827) Composer broke with classical phrases (immortal
beloved)
d. Brahms, Schumann, Wagner
VI.
Conservatism
A. A reaction to liberalism, which supported the monarchy
B. Supported Traditional government and religion
C. Edmund Burke
VII.
Revolutions
A. Greece
1. Nationalism - Sought independence from Ottoman Turks
2. Great Britain, France, Russia defeated Turk fleet at Navarino
3. Greece gained independence from Turkish rule 1832
B. Great Britain
1. Landowning aristocracy controlled by the Tory party
2. Only 8% of population could vote, drove interest in political reform
3. Corn Laws (1815) revision
a. Halted importation of cheaper foreign grains. Fostered from high grain prices,
shortages, unemployment.
b. aristocracy acted in their own best interest for economic advantage
c. (1817) Tory Gov’t. temporarily suspended peaceable assembly
d. (1819) Six Acts passed: controls on the press and assembly
1. “Battle of Peterloo” (Peterloo massacre) Saint Peter’s field in Manchester
2. Protest broken up by mounted soldiers
4. Reform Bill of 1832 pushed by the Whig party
a. Redistributed seats reflecting population shift
b. increasing voting privileges 50% (12% total population
5. Peoples Charter of 1838 and Chartist movement
a. Sought universal male suffrage (failed)
6. Anti-Corn Law league (1839) Helped Workers by lowering bread prices
7. Corn Laws repealed (1846) Tory leader Robert Peel
a. allowed free imports of grain
b. repealed to avert famine in England
8. Test act repealed that barred religious dissenters
C. Ireland
1. Subsistence agriculture based on potato economy
2. Irish potato famine
a. repeated crop failures (1845, 1846, 1848, 1851)
b. leads to countless deaths, Immigration.
VIII.
1848 Revolutions
A. Preconditions
1. Tide of discontent based upon equal representation
2. Liberalism and the absence of individual liberty
3. Economic Crisis, food shortages, diminishing wages
4. Growth of middle class prominence
B. France
1. Background
A. Louis XVIII Constitutional Charter of 1814 (liberal constitution)
B. The White Terror (1815)Royalist mobs murdered thousands of revolutionaries
C. Charles X wanted to restore the old order in France
1. sought to repeal Constitutional Charter in July 1830 with coup (Rev. of 1830)
2. July ordinances ended middle class voting rights, press censorship
3. “Three glorious days” political insurrection, Charles X fled. (July revolution)
4. Charles’ cousin Louis Philippe ascended to throne (Constitutional Monarchy)
a. Accepted Constitutional Charter of 1814.
2. Louis Philippe “Bourgeois monarchy” (1830-1848)
3. Refused to consider electoral reform, led to:
4. Workers revolt in Paris (Feb. 1848) Louis Philippe abdicates throne
a. Provisional republic declared
b. Gov’t. sponsored workshops, public works programs
c. Socialism and liberal capitalism clash
1. May: Constituent Assembly uprising
2. June: workshops were dissolved, uprisings ensue “June Days”
a. Republican army under General Cavaignac ends class war
b. Given dictatorial powers
d. Ends first French Republic
e. Drafted a constitution (France’s Second Republic) (Nov. 4,1848)
f. Voting rights extended to every adult male
g. Louis Napoleon, installed as President of the republic (Dec. 1848)
h. Declared himself Napoleon III established semi-authoritarian regime
i. Republicanism failed
C. Austrian Empire
1. Hungarian uprisings
a. demands for universal male suffrage, national autonomy
b. Ferdinand I (Habsburg) promised reforms/ Louis Kossuth Sought “Commonwealth”
c. Metternich dismisses then fled to London
1. abolished serfdom, sought to unify Croats, Serbs and Romanians
2. Austria against new Hungarian Gov’t.
d. Ferdinand I abdicates, Francis Joseph I
Nationalism/Unifications
I.
1850
Post revolutions (1848)
A. Rise of Nationalism
1. Defined by an identification with a particular nation-state
2. An important tool in unifying disjointed peoples
B. France
1. Louis Phillipe abdicates, second republic declared
2. Louis Napoleon (Napoleon III) elected by plebiscite
a. Sought national unity and social progress
b. Power held in check by National Assembly
c. Fostered Coup d’ etat in 1851
1. Restored universal male suffrage, authoritarian rule
2. Elected again by plebiscite Emperor Napoleon III
a. Nap. III attempted to create constitutional monarchy
3. Economic expansion through public works programs
4. electoral politics were closely monitored
5. public opinion shadowed decisions
6. Employment improves, unions allowed to form as well as the
right to strike
7. Liberalism sends France into tailspin
3. Republican France (Third republic) “Liberal Empire”
a. educational reforms
b. moderate political leaders
c. expansion of colonies
4. Paris Commune (following defeat in Franco-Prussian war)
a. Socialist proclaim Paris a “Commune”
b. Sought to defend Paris, organized and created labor reforms
c. Overthrown by Adolphe Thiers’ Versailles army
d. Government “communards” executed
C. Italy
1. History of small city-states ruled by region
2. Reorganized by Congress of Vienna (1815)
a. Northern Italy: Ruled by Austria
b. Sardinia, Piedmont, Tuscany: Ruled by Italy
c. Central Italy: Ruled by papacy
d. Naples, Sicily: Ruled by Bourbon (France)
3. Guiseppe Mazzini
a. Attempted to centralize Italy based on principle of Universal Male
suffrage “Young Italy”
b. Envisioned democratic republic (revolutionary nationalism)
4. Camillo Benso di Cavour (1810-1861)
a. Prime minister of Sardinia aligned policies with middle class
b. Realpolitik: The politics of realism
c. Attempt to unify Northern & Central Italy by provoking Austria
5. Guiseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882)
a. Volunteer army “Red shirts” sought to liberate the “two” Sicilies
b. Voted to join Piedmont
c. Politically united under Victor Emmanuel II, King of PiedmontSardinia.
d. Politically united in 1860
e. Supported suffrage, emancipation of women and social reforms
D. Germany
1.
German confederation made of 38 states (1815) / Failure of Frankfurt
Assembly
2. William I replaces Frederick William IV as king of Prussia
a. Frankfurt Assemble sought new united Germany - Disbanded
3. power vacuum with parliament, King William appoints Otto von Bismarck
4. Kruppworks steel, led by Prussian industrialist Alfred Krupp (1812-1887)
5. Ausgleich Compromise (1867) Created Dual monarchy of AustriaHungary
a. Francis Joseph (King of Hungary, Emperor of Austria)
8. Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898)
a. Junker aristocracy, elected to Prussian assembly
b. Sought to unify confederation states against Austria using nationalism
(war) as a tool. Distrust of socialism
c. Goals would be achieved, ”not through speeches and majority decisions
but by ‘blood and iron’” Government would rule without
parliamentary consent to achieve unification of Germany
d. Austro-Prussian war (1866) “Seven weeks war”
1. Austria and Prussia victorious over Denmark, SchleiswigHolstein (Danish war 1864)
2. Austria lost no territory, North German Confederation formed
3. elected lower house, local administration
4. Prussian control of Gov’t, foreign policy
5. Austria withdrew from German affairs, Italy unified
e. Franco-Prussian war (1870-1871)
1. Using nationalistic tendencies, Bismarck provokes war with
France, over who would be king of Spain
2. South German states play to his hand, completes unification
3. Nationalistic tendencies abound
4. French army is defeated at Sedan , Prussians occupy Paris
5. Napoleon III captured, France terms of surrender
a. French gave up Alsace-Lorraine/ France paid one billion
dollars
6. France: end of Second republic, beginning of Third republic
9. German empire: Prussia and 24 smaller states
a. Reichstag (lower house of Parliament) elected by males over 25
b. Bundesrat (upper house of Parliament.
c. Protectionism: tariffs and policies used to protect agriculture and
production
d. Attempts to stem tide of socialism
f. Social measures, first state to enact social legislation
g. By 1914 Germany most industrialized, socialist and unionized country
in Europe.
h. William II inherits German throne, dismissed Bismark (1890)
1. Begins to develop German Navy, doubles size of Army
E. Russia
2.
3.
“Modernization” changes that enable a countries to compete with other
nations.
Decembrist revolts (1825)
a. Alexander I Czar (1801) Dies 1825, Nicholas I
b. Army officers stage uprising on December 26
c. Demanded a constitutional monarchy, revolt crushed
d. Made strong impression on Nicholas I (Strengthen his power)
e. Gave secret police unlimited power, arrest, imprisonment, deported
4.
5.
6.
Crimean war (1853-1856)
a. Russian control over Constantinople, weakening of Ottoman empire
Ottoman Empire (Sick man of Europe) Muslim in religious belief
b. British feared Russia (balance of power)
c. Russia (Nicholas I)sent troops to Moldavia and Wallachia Sultan of
Turkey declares war on Russia (1853)
d. Britain and France (later Italy) declare war on Russia
e. Alfred Tennyson “Charge of the Light Brigade”
f. Florence Nightingale / Many died of disease (Cholera)
g. Peace of Paris (1856) neutrality of Black Sea, Turkey’s independence
h. Despite domination of British, helps foster Russian modernization
Freedom of Serfs “Emancipation Edict” (1861) Alexander II (Spiel. 659)
a. threat of peasant uprisings, parceled land to peasants called “Mirs”
b. Most important of great reforms “better to abolish serfdom from above
than to wait until it is abolished from below”
c. Pogroms, troops raided Jewish communities
d. Zemstvo’s, elected councils to deal with local problems
e. Reform of legal system
f. Institutes new government
g. Mirs (Parceled lands) peasants had to pay Gov’t. period of 49 years
h. Populists create political parties to work for revolution, “Peoples will”
i. Several attempts on Czar’s life, successful in 1881
Alexander II assassinated (1881) Alexander III, modernization slowed
a. Return to repressive policies
b. Russification: forced ethnic minorities to follow Russian Orthodox
church, etc.
c. Jews targeted by raids on communities (Pogroms)
B. Great Britain & Ireland
1. John Stuart Mill, On Liberty / On the Subjection of Women (Spiel. 621)
a. Issue protecting individual rights (highly intellectual)
b. Individual Rights and Freedoms - Absolute freedom of speech
(opinion on all subjects
3. Conservatives led by Benjamin Disraeli (1804-1881)
4. Third reform bill extended voting rights (1884)
5. Queen Victoria ruled British crown 1837-1901
a. Married German Prince Albert ( sparked anti-German sentiment)
b. King Edward VII inherited throne (1901-1910)
c. 1850’s – 1860’s Viscount Palmerston led Whigs/ began Liberal party
6. Liberals led by David Lloyd George
a. eliminated House of Lords as real power
b. increased taxes on wealthy aristocracy
c. social welfare programs instituted
7. Prime Minister William Gladstone (1809-1898)
a. Gladstone proposed home rule bill for Ireland, failed
b. Leads Liberal Party, England toward democracy
8. Ulsterites resisted home rule in Northern Ireland
9. Division between Catholics and Protestants
E. Austro-Hungarian empire toward a “Dual monarchy”
1. Multiethnic and multinational populations posed difficulties
F.
2.
3.
4.
Socialism
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Magyar nobility restored 1848 constitution, ruling Hungary
Language issues proved to be divisive
Dual monarchy – Augsleich (compromise of 1867)
Appeals to working classes
responses to nationalism and industrialism led by socialists
Marxism led negative response to industrialization
1864, “First International of socialists” is formed
1889, second International is formed (May day)
a. remains in place until 1914
b. based on inability of “old order” to address workers needs.