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Grammar, Mechanics, & Usage Review
1. Parts of a Paragraph
a) Main Idea – the message, opinion, or idea that a writer wants to communicate
b) Topic Sentence – states the main idea
c) Supporting Sentences – give details that explain or prove the main idea

Sensory Details – words that describe one of the five senses

Facts – information that can be proven true

Examples – typical instances

Unity – all the sentences support one main idea

Coherence – readers can tell how and why ideas are connected
2. Types of Sentences (classification by purpose)
a) Declarative – makes a statement
b) Imperative – makes a request or gives a command
c) Interrogative – asks a question
d) Exclamatory – expresses strong feeling
3. Types of Sentences (classification by structure)
a) Simple – one independent clause and no subordinate clause
b) Compound – two or more independent clauses but no subordinate clauses
c) Complex – one independent clause and at least one subordinate clause
d) Compound-Complex – two or more independent clauses and at least one
subordinate clause
4. Types of Phrases
a) Prepositional Phrases – begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or
pronoun that is called the object of the preposition

Adjective Phrase – modifies a noun or pronoun and tells “what kind” or “which
one” / usually follows the word it modifies, which may be the object of another
preposition / more than one adjective phrase may modify the same noun or
pronoun

Adverb Phrase – modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb and tells “when,
where, how, why, or to what extent” / may come before or after the word or
word group it modifies / more than one adverb phrase may modify the same
word or group of words
b) Verbal Phrases – consists of a verbal (a verb used as a noun, adjective, or
adverb) and its modifiers and complements
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
Participial Phrases – consists of a participle (verb form used as an adjective)
and all the words related to the participle


Present Participle – ends in –ing

Past Participle – ends in –d or –ed
Infinitive Phrase – consists of an infinitive (verb form usually preceded by “to”
that can be used as a noun, adjective, or adverb) and all the words related to
the infinitive

Gerund Phrase – consists of a gerund (verb form ending in –ing used as a
noun) and all the words related to the gerund
c) Appositive Phrase – consists of an appositive (a noun or pronoun placed beside
another noun or pronoun to identify or explain it) and its modifiers
5. Types of Clauses
a) Independent (Main) Clause –expresses a complete thought and can stand by
itself as a sentence
b) Subordinate (Dependent) Clause – does not express a complete thought and
cannot stand alone as a sentence
d) Adjective Clause – a subordinate clause that modifies a noun or pronoun /
usually begins with a relative pronoun
e) Adverb Clause – a subordinate clause that modifies a verb, an adverb, or an
adjective / begins with a subordinating conjunction
f)
Noun Clause – a subordinate clause used as a subject, a predicate nominative, a
direct object, an indirect object, or an object of a preposition
6. Parts of Speech
a) Noun – a word that names a person, place, thing, or idea

Proper Noun – names a particular person, place, thing, or idea / begins with a
capital letter

Common Noun – names any one of a group of persons, places, or things / it
is not capitalized

Concrete Noun – names a person, place, or thing that can be perceived by
one or more of the senses

Abstract Noun – names an idea, a feeling, a quality, or a characteristic
b) Pronoun – a word used in place of a noun or more than one noun
Grammar, Mechanics, & Usage Review

Personal Pronouns – refers to the one speaking (first person), the one
spoken to (second person), or the one spoken about (third person) [I, me, my,
mine, we, us, our, ours, you, your, yours, he, him, his, she, her, hers, it, its,
they, them, their, theirs]

Reflexive Pronouns – refers to the subject and directs the action of the verb
back to the subject [myself, ourselves, yourself, yourselves, himself, herself,
itself, themselves]

Intensive Pronouns – emphasizes a noun or another pronoun [myself,
ourselves, yourself, yourselves, himself, herself, itself, themselves]

Demonstrative Pronouns – points out a person, a place, a thing, or an idea
[this, that, these, those]

Interrogative Pronouns – introduces a question [what, which, who, whom,
whose]

Indefinite Pronouns – does not refer to a definite person, place, thing, or idea
[all, any, anyone, both, either, everything, few, more, much, nobody, none, no
one, other, several, some]

Relative Pronouns – introduces a subordinate clause [that, which, who,
whom, whose]
c) Verb – a word that expresses an action or a state of being

Action Verb – a verb that expresses physical or mental action

Transitive Verb – an action verb that expresses an action directed toward a
person or thing

Intransitive Verb – expresses action (or tells something about its subject)
without passing the action to a receiver

Linking Verb – a verb that expresses a state of being / connects the subject
of a sentence with a word in the predicate that explains or describes the
subject (all forms of be: am, is, are, was, were, being, be, can be, may be,
might be, must be, shall be, will be, could be, should be, would be, has been,
have been, had been, shall have been, will have been, could have been,
should have been, would have been; appear, become, feel, grow, look,
remain, seem, smell, sound, stay, taste, turn)

Helping Verb – helps the main verb to express action or a state of being
(some forms of be: am, is, are, was, were, be, being, been; forms of have:
Grammar, Mechanics, & Usage Review
has, have, having, had; forms of do: do, does, doing, did; modals: may,
might, must, can, shall, will, could, would, should)

Verb Tense – indicates the time of the action or the state of being expressed
by the verb

Present Tense – used mainly to express an action or a state of being that
is occurring now

Past Tense – used to express an action or a state of being that occurred
in the past but that is not occurring now

Future Tense – (formed with “will” or “shall” and the verb’s base form)
used to express an action or a state of being that will occur

Present Perfect Tense – (formed with “have” or “has” and the verb’s past
participle) used to express an action or a state of being that occurred at
some indefinite in the past

Past Perfect Tense – (formed with “had” and the verb’s past participle)
used to express an action or a state of being that was completed in the
past before some other past action or event

Future Perfect Tense – (formed with “will have” or “shall have” and the
verb’s past participle) used to express an action or a state of being that
will be completed in the future before some other future occurrence

Progressive Form – expresses a continuing action or state of being /
exists for each of the six verb tenses / consists of the appropriate tense of
“be” plus the verb’s present participle and also includes one or more
helping verbs
d) Adverb – a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb
e) Adjective – a word that modifies a noun or a pronoun

Indefinite Articles – “a” and “an” because they refer to someone or something
in general

Definite Article – “the” because it refers to someone or something in particular

Demonstrative Adjectives – the words “that”, “these”, “this”, “those” when they
modify a noun

f)
Proper Adjectives – formed from a proper noun
Conjunction – a word that joins words or groups of words
Grammar, Mechanics, & Usage Review

Coordinating Conjunctions – connect words or groups of words used in the
same way [and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet]

Correlative Conjunctions – pairs of conjunctions that connect words or groups
of words used in the same way [both...and, either...or, neither...nor, not
only...but also, whether...or]
g) Preposition – a word that shows the relationship between a noun or pronoun and
another word in the sentence (about, above, across, after, against, along,
among, around, as at, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, besides, between,
beyond, but, by, down, during, except, for, from, in, inside, into, like, near, of, off,
on, out, outside, over, past, since, through, throughout, to, toward, under,
underneath, until, unto, up, upon, with, within, without, according to, along with,
apart from, aside from, as of, because of, by means of, in addition to, in front of,
in place of, in spite of, instead of, next to, on account of, out of)
h) Interjection – a word that expresses strong emotion
7. Voice
a) Active Voice – expresses an action done by its subject
b) Passive Voice – expresses an action received by its subject
8. Types of Writing
a) Exposition – explains, gives information, defines, or clarifies
b) Argumentation – form of persuasion that uses reasoning to try to lead a reader or
listener to think or act in a certain way
c) Description – intended to create a mood or emotion or to re-create a person, a
place, a thing, an event, or an experience
d) Narration – tells about a series of related events
e) Persuasive – aimed at leading the reader or listener to think or act in a certain
way
9. Complements – a word or group of words that completes the meaning of a verb
a) Subject Complement – a word or word group that completes the meaning of a
linking verb and that identifies or modifies the subject

Predicate Nominative – a noun or pronoun that follows a linking verb and that
renames or identifies the subject of the verb

Predicate Adjective – an adjective that follows a linking verb and that modifies
the subject of a verb
Grammar, Mechanics, & Usage Review
b) Direct Object – a noun or pronoun that receives the action of a verb or that
shows the result of the action. It tells “whom” or “what” after a transitive verb.
c) Indirect Object – a noun or pronoun that precedes the direct object and that
usually tells “to whom” or “for whom” (or “to what” or “for what”) the action of the
verb is done.
10. General Usage Rules
a) Who vs. Whom: Use the he/him method to decide which word is correct. If you
can replace with “he”, use “who”; if you can replace with “him”, use “whom”.
b) That, Who, Which: “Who” refers to people. “That” and “which” refer to groups or
things. “That” can also introduce nonessential clauses.
c) Good vs. Well: “Good” is an adjective and “well” is an adverb. When referring to
health, use “well” rather than “good”.
d) Prepositions:

You may end a sentence with a preposition; just do not use extra prepositions
when the meaning is clear without them.

Use “on” with expressions that indicate the time of an occurrence.

“Of” should never be used in place of “have”.
11. Effective Writing
a) Use concrete rather than vague language.
b) Use active voice whenever possible. Active voice means the subject is
performing the verb.
c) Avoid overusing “there is”, “there are”, “it is”, “it was” and so on.
d) Don’t use double negatives.
e) Use similar grammatical form when offering several ideas. This is called parallel
construction.
f)
If you start a sentence with an action, place the actor immediately after the action
to avoid dangling modifiers.
g) Place modifiers near the words they modify.
12. Punctuation
a) Periods

Use a period at the end of a complete sentence.

If the last word in a sentence ends in a period, do not use a second period.

Use a period after an indirect quotation (He asked where his suitcase was.)
Grammar, Mechanics, & Usage Review
b) Commas

Use commas to separate words and word groups with a series of three or more.

Use a comma to separate two adjectives when the word “and” can be inserted
between them. (He is a strong, healthy young man.)

Use a comma when an –ly adjective is used with other adjectives. (He is a lonely,
confused boy.)

Use commas before or surrounding the name or title of a person directly
addressed. (Yes, Mom, I will.)

Use a comma to separate the day of the month from the year and after the year.
(They were married June 6, 2000, in Tampa, Florida.) If any part of the date is
omitted, leave out the comma. (They met in December 2000 in Tampa, Florida.)

Use a comma to separate the city from the state and after the state in a
document. If you use the two-letter capitalized form of a state in a document you
do not need a comma after the state. With addresses on envelopes, no comma
is needed. (I lived in Tampa, Florida, for twenty years. // I lived in Tampa, FL for
twenty years.)

Use commas to surround degrees or titles used with names. Commas are no
longer required around “Jr.” and “Sr.” (Al Mooney, M.D., knew my parents.)

When starting a sentence with a weak clause, use a comma after it. Conversely,
do not use a comma when the sentence starts with a strong clause followed be a
weak one. (If you are not sure about this, let me know. // Let me know if you
are not sure about this.)

Use a comma after phrases of more than three words that begin a sentence. If
the phrase is less than three words, the comma is optional. (To apply for this job,
you must have previous experience.)

If something or someone is sufficiently identified, the description following it is
considered nonessential and should be surrounded by commas. (Freddy, who
has a limp, was in an auto accident. // The boy who has a limp was in an auto
accident.)

Use a comma to separate two strong clauses joined by a coordinating
conjunction. You can omit the comma if both clauses are short. (I have painted
the entire house, but he is still working on sanding the doors. /// I paint and he
writes.)
Grammar, Mechanics, & Usage Review

A comma splice is an error caused by joining two strong clauses with only a
comma instead of separating the clauses with a conjunction, a semicolon, or a
period. A run-on sentence is created by joining two strong clauses without any
punctuation.

Use commas to introduce or interrupt direct quotations shorter than three lines.

Use a comma to separate a statement from a question.

Use a comma to separate contrasting parts of a sentence. (That is my money,
not yours.)

Use a comma when beginning sentences with introductory words such as “well”,
“now”, or “yes”.

Use commas surrounding words such as “therefore” and “however” when they
are used as interrupters. (I would, therefore, like a response.)

Use either a comma or a semicolon before introductory words such as “namely”,
“that is”, “i.e.”, “for example”, “e.g”, or “for instance” when they are followed by a
series of items. Use a comma after the introductory word.
c) Semicolons

Use a semicolon in place of a period to separate two sentences where the
conjunction has been left out.

It is preferable to use the semicolon before such words as “namely”, “however”,
“therefore”, “that is”, “i.e.”, “for example”, “e.g.”, or “for instance” when they
introduce a complete sentence.

Use the semicolon to separate units of a series when one or more of the units
contains commas.

Use the semicolon between two sentences joined by a coordinating conjunction
when one or more commas appear in the first sentence.
d) Colons

Use the colon after a complete sentence to introduce a list of items when
introductory words such as “namely”, “for example”, or “that is” do not appear.

A colon should not precede a list unless it follows a complete sentence; however,
the colon is a style choice that some publications allow.

Use a colon instead of a semicolon between two sentences when the second
sentence explains or illustrates the first sentence and no coordinating conjunction
is being used to connect the sentences. If only one sentence follows the colon,
Grammar, Mechanics, & Usage Review
do not capitalize the first word of the new sentence. If two or more sentences
follow the colon, capitalize the first word of each sentence following.

Use the colon to introduce a direct quotation that is more than three lines in
length.

Use the colon to follow the salutation of a business letter even when addressing
someone by his/her first name. Never use a semicolon after a salutation. A
comma is used after the salutation of a personal letter.
e) Question Marks

Use a question mark only after a direct question. (Will you go with me? /// I
aksed if he would go with me.)

Use a question mark when a sentence is half statement and half question. (You
do care, don’t you?)
f)
Exclamation Points

Use the exclamation point to show emphasis or surprise. Do not use the
exclamation point in formal writing.
g) Quotation Marks

Periods and commas always go inside quotation marks, even inside single
quotes.

The placement of a question mark with quotes follows logic. If a question mark is
in quotation marks, the question mark should be placed inside the quotation
marks. If the question is outside the quote, the question mark goes outside.
(She asked, “Will you be my friend?” /// Do you agree with the saying, “All’s fair
in love and war”?)

When you have a question outside quoted material and inside quoted material,
use only one question mark and place it inside the question mark. (Did she say,
“May I go?”)

Use single quotation marks for quotes within quotes. Note that the period goes
inside all quote marks. (He said, “Dana said, ‘Do not treat me that way.’”)

Use quotation marks to set off a direct quotation only.

Do not use quotation marks with quoted material that is more than three lines in
length.

When you are quoting something that has a spelling or grammar mistake or
presents material in a confusing way, insert the term “sic” in italics and enclose it
in brackets. “Sic” means, “This is the way the original material was.”
Grammar, Mechanics, & Usage Review
h) Parenthesis

Use parenthesis to enclose words or figures that clarify or are used as an aside.

Use full parentheses to enclose numbers or letters for listed items.

Periods go inside parentheses only if an entire sentence is inside the
parentheses.
i)
Apostrophes

Use the apostrophe with contractions. The apostrophe is always placed at the
spot where the letter(s) has been removed. (Do not = don’t // Can not = can’t)

Use the apostrophe to show possession. Place the apostrophe before the “s” to
show singular possession. (the actress’s hat // the child’s hat)

Use the apostrophe where the noun that should follow is implied. (This was his
father’s, not his, jacket.)

To show plural possession, make the noun plural first. Then immediately use the
apostrophe. (two children’s hats // two actresses’ hats)

Do not use an apostrophe for the plural of a name.

With a singular noun, show possession with ‘s at the end of the word. (my
mother-in-law’s hat)

If the compound noun is plural, form the plural first and then use the apostrophe.
(my brothers-in-law’s hats)

Use the apostrophe and “s” after the second name only if two people possess the
same item. (Joe and Jane’s home is constructed of redwood.)

Never use an apostrophe with a possessive pronoun.

The only time an apostrophe is used for “it’s” is when it is a contraction for “it is”
or “it has”.

The plurals for capital letters and numbers used as nouns are not formed with
apostrophes. (She learned her ABCs. // He was born in the 1880s.)

Use the possessive case in front of a gerund.

If the gerund has a pronoun in front of it, use the possessive form of that
pronoun.
j)
Hyphens

To check whether a compound noun is two words, one word, or hyphenated, you
may need to look it up in the dictionary. If you can’t find the word in the
dictionary, treat the noun as separate words.
Grammar, Mechanics, & Usage Review

Phrases that have verb, noun, and adjective forms should appear as separate
words when used as verbs and as one word when used as nouns or adjectives.

Compound verbs are either hyphenated or appear as one word. If you do not
find the verb in the dictionary, hyphenate it.

Generally, hyphenate between two or more adjectives when they come before a
noun and act as a single idea. (friendly-looking man)

When adverbs not ending in –ly are used as compound words in front of a noun,
hyphenate. When the combination of words is used after the noun, do not
hyphenate. (The well-known actress // The actress was well known.)

Hyphenate all compound numbers from twenty-one through ninety-nine.

Hyphenate all spelled out fractions.
k) Hyphens with Prefixes

The current trend is to do away with unnecessary hyphens. Therefore, attach
most prefixes and suffixes onto root words without a hyphen. (copayment,
fortyish)

Hyphenate prefixes when they come before proper nouns. (un-American)

Hyphenate prefixes ending in an “a” or “I” only when the root word begins with
the same letter. (ultra-ambitious, semi-invalid)

When a prefix ends in one vowel and a root word begins with a different vowel,
generally attach them without a hyphen. (antiaircraft, proactive)

Prefixes and root words that result in double e’s and double o’s are usually
combined to form one word. (preemployment, coordinate)

Hyphenate all words beginning with “self” except for “selfish” and “selfless”.

Use a hyphen with the prefix “ex”.

Use the hyphen with the prefix “re” when the “re” means “again” and omitting the
hyphen would cause confusion with another word. (recover, re-cover – these two
words mean different things)
13. Capitalization

Capitalize the first word of a sentence.

Capitalize a proper noun.

Capitalize a person’s title when it precedes the name. Do not capitalize when the
title is acting as a descriptor following the name. (Chairperson Jones // Mr.
Jones, the chairperson,)
Grammar, Mechanics, & Usage Review

Capitalize the person’s title when it follows the name on the address or signature
line.

Capitalize the titles of high-ranking government officials when used with or before
their names. Do not capitalize the civil title if it is used instead of the name. (The
president will address Congress. /// President Lincoln)

Capitalize any title when used as a direct address. (Thank you, Mr. President.)

Capitalize points of the compass only when they refer to specific regions. (We
had relatives visit from the South. /// Go three miles and turn south.)

Always capitalize the first and last words of titles of publications regardless of
their parts of speech. Capitalize other words within titles, including the short verb
forms “is”, “are”, and “be”. Do not capitalize little words within titles such as: a,
an, the, but, as, if, and, or, nor…or prepositions, regardless of their length.

Capitalize “federal” or “state” when used as part of an official agency name or in
government documents where these terms represent an official name. If they
are used in general terms, use lowercase.

You may capitalize words such as “department”, “bureau”, and “office” if you
have prepared your text in the following way: The Bureau of Land Management
(Bureau) has some jurisdiction over Indian lands. The Bureau is finding its
administrative role to be challenging.

Do not capitalize the names of the seasons.

Capitalize the first word of a salutation and the first word of a complimentary
close.

Capitalize words derived from proper nouns.

Capitalize the names of specific course titles. (algebra /// Algebra 2)

After a sentence ending with a colon, do not capitalize the first word if it begins a
list.

Do not capitalize when only one sentence follows a sentence ending with a
colon.

Capitalize when two or more sentences follow a sentence ending with a colon.
14. Numbers

Spell out single-digit whole numbers. Use numerals for numbers greater than
nine. (I want five copies. // I want 10 copies.)
Grammar, Mechanics, & Usage Review

Be consistent within a category. Either spell out or use numerals through the
entire sentence.

Always spell out simple fractions and use hyphens with them. (one-half)

A mixed fraction can be expressed in figures, unless it is the first word of the
sentence.

The simplest way to express large numbers is best. Round numbers are usually
spelled out, but be consistent. (You can earn from one million to five million
dollars.)

Write decimals in figures. Put a zero in front of a decimal unless the decimal
itself begins with zero. (0.79 // .07)

With numbers of four or more digits, use commas. Count three spaces to the left
of the ones column to place the first comma. If the number contains seven or
more digits, continue counting and placing commas after every three places.

When writing out a number of four or more digits, do not use a comma.
However, do use the word “and” where a decimal point appears in the figure
format.

The following examples apply when using dates: The meeting is scheduled for
June 30. The meeting is scheduled for the 30th of June.

When expressing decades, you may spell them out and lowercase them. (the
eighties)

If you wish to express decades using incomplete numerals, put an apostrophe
before the incomplete numeral but not between the year and the “s”. (‘80s)

You may also express decades in complete numerals. Don’t use an apostrophe.
(1980s)

Normally, spell out the time of day in text even with half and quarter hours. With
“o’clock”, the number is always spelled out. (She gets up at four thirty every
morning.)

Use numerals with the time of day when exact times are being emphasized or
when using AM or PM. (6:22 // 6:22 AM)

Use “noon” and “midnight” rather than “12:00 AM” or “12:00 PM”.

Hyphenate all compound numbers from twenty-one through ninety-nine.

Write out any number that begins a sentence.