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Grammar, Mechanics, & Usage Review 1. Parts of a Paragraph a) Main Idea – the message, opinion, or idea that a writer wants to communicate b) Topic Sentence – states the main idea c) Supporting Sentences – give details that explain or prove the main idea Sensory Details – words that describe one of the five senses Facts – information that can be proven true Examples – typical instances Unity – all the sentences support one main idea Coherence – readers can tell how and why ideas are connected 2. Types of Sentences (classification by purpose) a) Declarative – makes a statement b) Imperative – makes a request or gives a command c) Interrogative – asks a question d) Exclamatory – expresses strong feeling 3. Types of Sentences (classification by structure) a) Simple – one independent clause and no subordinate clause b) Compound – two or more independent clauses but no subordinate clauses c) Complex – one independent clause and at least one subordinate clause d) Compound-Complex – two or more independent clauses and at least one subordinate clause 4. Types of Phrases a) Prepositional Phrases – begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun that is called the object of the preposition Adjective Phrase – modifies a noun or pronoun and tells “what kind” or “which one” / usually follows the word it modifies, which may be the object of another preposition / more than one adjective phrase may modify the same noun or pronoun Adverb Phrase – modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb and tells “when, where, how, why, or to what extent” / may come before or after the word or word group it modifies / more than one adverb phrase may modify the same word or group of words b) Verbal Phrases – consists of a verbal (a verb used as a noun, adjective, or adverb) and its modifiers and complements Grammar, Mechanics, & Usage Review Participial Phrases – consists of a participle (verb form used as an adjective) and all the words related to the participle Present Participle – ends in –ing Past Participle – ends in –d or –ed Infinitive Phrase – consists of an infinitive (verb form usually preceded by “to” that can be used as a noun, adjective, or adverb) and all the words related to the infinitive Gerund Phrase – consists of a gerund (verb form ending in –ing used as a noun) and all the words related to the gerund c) Appositive Phrase – consists of an appositive (a noun or pronoun placed beside another noun or pronoun to identify or explain it) and its modifiers 5. Types of Clauses a) Independent (Main) Clause –expresses a complete thought and can stand by itself as a sentence b) Subordinate (Dependent) Clause – does not express a complete thought and cannot stand alone as a sentence d) Adjective Clause – a subordinate clause that modifies a noun or pronoun / usually begins with a relative pronoun e) Adverb Clause – a subordinate clause that modifies a verb, an adverb, or an adjective / begins with a subordinating conjunction f) Noun Clause – a subordinate clause used as a subject, a predicate nominative, a direct object, an indirect object, or an object of a preposition 6. Parts of Speech a) Noun – a word that names a person, place, thing, or idea Proper Noun – names a particular person, place, thing, or idea / begins with a capital letter Common Noun – names any one of a group of persons, places, or things / it is not capitalized Concrete Noun – names a person, place, or thing that can be perceived by one or more of the senses Abstract Noun – names an idea, a feeling, a quality, or a characteristic b) Pronoun – a word used in place of a noun or more than one noun Grammar, Mechanics, & Usage Review Personal Pronouns – refers to the one speaking (first person), the one spoken to (second person), or the one spoken about (third person) [I, me, my, mine, we, us, our, ours, you, your, yours, he, him, his, she, her, hers, it, its, they, them, their, theirs] Reflexive Pronouns – refers to the subject and directs the action of the verb back to the subject [myself, ourselves, yourself, yourselves, himself, herself, itself, themselves] Intensive Pronouns – emphasizes a noun or another pronoun [myself, ourselves, yourself, yourselves, himself, herself, itself, themselves] Demonstrative Pronouns – points out a person, a place, a thing, or an idea [this, that, these, those] Interrogative Pronouns – introduces a question [what, which, who, whom, whose] Indefinite Pronouns – does not refer to a definite person, place, thing, or idea [all, any, anyone, both, either, everything, few, more, much, nobody, none, no one, other, several, some] Relative Pronouns – introduces a subordinate clause [that, which, who, whom, whose] c) Verb – a word that expresses an action or a state of being Action Verb – a verb that expresses physical or mental action Transitive Verb – an action verb that expresses an action directed toward a person or thing Intransitive Verb – expresses action (or tells something about its subject) without passing the action to a receiver Linking Verb – a verb that expresses a state of being / connects the subject of a sentence with a word in the predicate that explains or describes the subject (all forms of be: am, is, are, was, were, being, be, can be, may be, might be, must be, shall be, will be, could be, should be, would be, has been, have been, had been, shall have been, will have been, could have been, should have been, would have been; appear, become, feel, grow, look, remain, seem, smell, sound, stay, taste, turn) Helping Verb – helps the main verb to express action or a state of being (some forms of be: am, is, are, was, were, be, being, been; forms of have: Grammar, Mechanics, & Usage Review has, have, having, had; forms of do: do, does, doing, did; modals: may, might, must, can, shall, will, could, would, should) Verb Tense – indicates the time of the action or the state of being expressed by the verb Present Tense – used mainly to express an action or a state of being that is occurring now Past Tense – used to express an action or a state of being that occurred in the past but that is not occurring now Future Tense – (formed with “will” or “shall” and the verb’s base form) used to express an action or a state of being that will occur Present Perfect Tense – (formed with “have” or “has” and the verb’s past participle) used to express an action or a state of being that occurred at some indefinite in the past Past Perfect Tense – (formed with “had” and the verb’s past participle) used to express an action or a state of being that was completed in the past before some other past action or event Future Perfect Tense – (formed with “will have” or “shall have” and the verb’s past participle) used to express an action or a state of being that will be completed in the future before some other future occurrence Progressive Form – expresses a continuing action or state of being / exists for each of the six verb tenses / consists of the appropriate tense of “be” plus the verb’s present participle and also includes one or more helping verbs d) Adverb – a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb e) Adjective – a word that modifies a noun or a pronoun Indefinite Articles – “a” and “an” because they refer to someone or something in general Definite Article – “the” because it refers to someone or something in particular Demonstrative Adjectives – the words “that”, “these”, “this”, “those” when they modify a noun f) Proper Adjectives – formed from a proper noun Conjunction – a word that joins words or groups of words Grammar, Mechanics, & Usage Review Coordinating Conjunctions – connect words or groups of words used in the same way [and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet] Correlative Conjunctions – pairs of conjunctions that connect words or groups of words used in the same way [both...and, either...or, neither...nor, not only...but also, whether...or] g) Preposition – a word that shows the relationship between a noun or pronoun and another word in the sentence (about, above, across, after, against, along, among, around, as at, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, besides, between, beyond, but, by, down, during, except, for, from, in, inside, into, like, near, of, off, on, out, outside, over, past, since, through, throughout, to, toward, under, underneath, until, unto, up, upon, with, within, without, according to, along with, apart from, aside from, as of, because of, by means of, in addition to, in front of, in place of, in spite of, instead of, next to, on account of, out of) h) Interjection – a word that expresses strong emotion 7. Voice a) Active Voice – expresses an action done by its subject b) Passive Voice – expresses an action received by its subject 8. Types of Writing a) Exposition – explains, gives information, defines, or clarifies b) Argumentation – form of persuasion that uses reasoning to try to lead a reader or listener to think or act in a certain way c) Description – intended to create a mood or emotion or to re-create a person, a place, a thing, an event, or an experience d) Narration – tells about a series of related events e) Persuasive – aimed at leading the reader or listener to think or act in a certain way 9. Complements – a word or group of words that completes the meaning of a verb a) Subject Complement – a word or word group that completes the meaning of a linking verb and that identifies or modifies the subject Predicate Nominative – a noun or pronoun that follows a linking verb and that renames or identifies the subject of the verb Predicate Adjective – an adjective that follows a linking verb and that modifies the subject of a verb Grammar, Mechanics, & Usage Review b) Direct Object – a noun or pronoun that receives the action of a verb or that shows the result of the action. It tells “whom” or “what” after a transitive verb. c) Indirect Object – a noun or pronoun that precedes the direct object and that usually tells “to whom” or “for whom” (or “to what” or “for what”) the action of the verb is done. 10. General Usage Rules a) Who vs. Whom: Use the he/him method to decide which word is correct. If you can replace with “he”, use “who”; if you can replace with “him”, use “whom”. b) That, Who, Which: “Who” refers to people. “That” and “which” refer to groups or things. “That” can also introduce nonessential clauses. c) Good vs. Well: “Good” is an adjective and “well” is an adverb. When referring to health, use “well” rather than “good”. d) Prepositions: You may end a sentence with a preposition; just do not use extra prepositions when the meaning is clear without them. Use “on” with expressions that indicate the time of an occurrence. “Of” should never be used in place of “have”. 11. Effective Writing a) Use concrete rather than vague language. b) Use active voice whenever possible. Active voice means the subject is performing the verb. c) Avoid overusing “there is”, “there are”, “it is”, “it was” and so on. d) Don’t use double negatives. e) Use similar grammatical form when offering several ideas. This is called parallel construction. f) If you start a sentence with an action, place the actor immediately after the action to avoid dangling modifiers. g) Place modifiers near the words they modify. 12. Punctuation a) Periods Use a period at the end of a complete sentence. If the last word in a sentence ends in a period, do not use a second period. Use a period after an indirect quotation (He asked where his suitcase was.) Grammar, Mechanics, & Usage Review b) Commas Use commas to separate words and word groups with a series of three or more. Use a comma to separate two adjectives when the word “and” can be inserted between them. (He is a strong, healthy young man.) Use a comma when an –ly adjective is used with other adjectives. (He is a lonely, confused boy.) Use commas before or surrounding the name or title of a person directly addressed. (Yes, Mom, I will.) Use a comma to separate the day of the month from the year and after the year. (They were married June 6, 2000, in Tampa, Florida.) If any part of the date is omitted, leave out the comma. (They met in December 2000 in Tampa, Florida.) Use a comma to separate the city from the state and after the state in a document. If you use the two-letter capitalized form of a state in a document you do not need a comma after the state. With addresses on envelopes, no comma is needed. (I lived in Tampa, Florida, for twenty years. // I lived in Tampa, FL for twenty years.) Use commas to surround degrees or titles used with names. Commas are no longer required around “Jr.” and “Sr.” (Al Mooney, M.D., knew my parents.) When starting a sentence with a weak clause, use a comma after it. Conversely, do not use a comma when the sentence starts with a strong clause followed be a weak one. (If you are not sure about this, let me know. // Let me know if you are not sure about this.) Use a comma after phrases of more than three words that begin a sentence. If the phrase is less than three words, the comma is optional. (To apply for this job, you must have previous experience.) If something or someone is sufficiently identified, the description following it is considered nonessential and should be surrounded by commas. (Freddy, who has a limp, was in an auto accident. // The boy who has a limp was in an auto accident.) Use a comma to separate two strong clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction. You can omit the comma if both clauses are short. (I have painted the entire house, but he is still working on sanding the doors. /// I paint and he writes.) Grammar, Mechanics, & Usage Review A comma splice is an error caused by joining two strong clauses with only a comma instead of separating the clauses with a conjunction, a semicolon, or a period. A run-on sentence is created by joining two strong clauses without any punctuation. Use commas to introduce or interrupt direct quotations shorter than three lines. Use a comma to separate a statement from a question. Use a comma to separate contrasting parts of a sentence. (That is my money, not yours.) Use a comma when beginning sentences with introductory words such as “well”, “now”, or “yes”. Use commas surrounding words such as “therefore” and “however” when they are used as interrupters. (I would, therefore, like a response.) Use either a comma or a semicolon before introductory words such as “namely”, “that is”, “i.e.”, “for example”, “e.g”, or “for instance” when they are followed by a series of items. Use a comma after the introductory word. c) Semicolons Use a semicolon in place of a period to separate two sentences where the conjunction has been left out. It is preferable to use the semicolon before such words as “namely”, “however”, “therefore”, “that is”, “i.e.”, “for example”, “e.g.”, or “for instance” when they introduce a complete sentence. Use the semicolon to separate units of a series when one or more of the units contains commas. Use the semicolon between two sentences joined by a coordinating conjunction when one or more commas appear in the first sentence. d) Colons Use the colon after a complete sentence to introduce a list of items when introductory words such as “namely”, “for example”, or “that is” do not appear. A colon should not precede a list unless it follows a complete sentence; however, the colon is a style choice that some publications allow. Use a colon instead of a semicolon between two sentences when the second sentence explains or illustrates the first sentence and no coordinating conjunction is being used to connect the sentences. If only one sentence follows the colon, Grammar, Mechanics, & Usage Review do not capitalize the first word of the new sentence. If two or more sentences follow the colon, capitalize the first word of each sentence following. Use the colon to introduce a direct quotation that is more than three lines in length. Use the colon to follow the salutation of a business letter even when addressing someone by his/her first name. Never use a semicolon after a salutation. A comma is used after the salutation of a personal letter. e) Question Marks Use a question mark only after a direct question. (Will you go with me? /// I aksed if he would go with me.) Use a question mark when a sentence is half statement and half question. (You do care, don’t you?) f) Exclamation Points Use the exclamation point to show emphasis or surprise. Do not use the exclamation point in formal writing. g) Quotation Marks Periods and commas always go inside quotation marks, even inside single quotes. The placement of a question mark with quotes follows logic. If a question mark is in quotation marks, the question mark should be placed inside the quotation marks. If the question is outside the quote, the question mark goes outside. (She asked, “Will you be my friend?” /// Do you agree with the saying, “All’s fair in love and war”?) When you have a question outside quoted material and inside quoted material, use only one question mark and place it inside the question mark. (Did she say, “May I go?”) Use single quotation marks for quotes within quotes. Note that the period goes inside all quote marks. (He said, “Dana said, ‘Do not treat me that way.’”) Use quotation marks to set off a direct quotation only. Do not use quotation marks with quoted material that is more than three lines in length. When you are quoting something that has a spelling or grammar mistake or presents material in a confusing way, insert the term “sic” in italics and enclose it in brackets. “Sic” means, “This is the way the original material was.” Grammar, Mechanics, & Usage Review h) Parenthesis Use parenthesis to enclose words or figures that clarify or are used as an aside. Use full parentheses to enclose numbers or letters for listed items. Periods go inside parentheses only if an entire sentence is inside the parentheses. i) Apostrophes Use the apostrophe with contractions. The apostrophe is always placed at the spot where the letter(s) has been removed. (Do not = don’t // Can not = can’t) Use the apostrophe to show possession. Place the apostrophe before the “s” to show singular possession. (the actress’s hat // the child’s hat) Use the apostrophe where the noun that should follow is implied. (This was his father’s, not his, jacket.) To show plural possession, make the noun plural first. Then immediately use the apostrophe. (two children’s hats // two actresses’ hats) Do not use an apostrophe for the plural of a name. With a singular noun, show possession with ‘s at the end of the word. (my mother-in-law’s hat) If the compound noun is plural, form the plural first and then use the apostrophe. (my brothers-in-law’s hats) Use the apostrophe and “s” after the second name only if two people possess the same item. (Joe and Jane’s home is constructed of redwood.) Never use an apostrophe with a possessive pronoun. The only time an apostrophe is used for “it’s” is when it is a contraction for “it is” or “it has”. The plurals for capital letters and numbers used as nouns are not formed with apostrophes. (She learned her ABCs. // He was born in the 1880s.) Use the possessive case in front of a gerund. If the gerund has a pronoun in front of it, use the possessive form of that pronoun. j) Hyphens To check whether a compound noun is two words, one word, or hyphenated, you may need to look it up in the dictionary. If you can’t find the word in the dictionary, treat the noun as separate words. Grammar, Mechanics, & Usage Review Phrases that have verb, noun, and adjective forms should appear as separate words when used as verbs and as one word when used as nouns or adjectives. Compound verbs are either hyphenated or appear as one word. If you do not find the verb in the dictionary, hyphenate it. Generally, hyphenate between two or more adjectives when they come before a noun and act as a single idea. (friendly-looking man) When adverbs not ending in –ly are used as compound words in front of a noun, hyphenate. When the combination of words is used after the noun, do not hyphenate. (The well-known actress // The actress was well known.) Hyphenate all compound numbers from twenty-one through ninety-nine. Hyphenate all spelled out fractions. k) Hyphens with Prefixes The current trend is to do away with unnecessary hyphens. Therefore, attach most prefixes and suffixes onto root words without a hyphen. (copayment, fortyish) Hyphenate prefixes when they come before proper nouns. (un-American) Hyphenate prefixes ending in an “a” or “I” only when the root word begins with the same letter. (ultra-ambitious, semi-invalid) When a prefix ends in one vowel and a root word begins with a different vowel, generally attach them without a hyphen. (antiaircraft, proactive) Prefixes and root words that result in double e’s and double o’s are usually combined to form one word. (preemployment, coordinate) Hyphenate all words beginning with “self” except for “selfish” and “selfless”. Use a hyphen with the prefix “ex”. Use the hyphen with the prefix “re” when the “re” means “again” and omitting the hyphen would cause confusion with another word. (recover, re-cover – these two words mean different things) 13. Capitalization Capitalize the first word of a sentence. Capitalize a proper noun. Capitalize a person’s title when it precedes the name. Do not capitalize when the title is acting as a descriptor following the name. (Chairperson Jones // Mr. Jones, the chairperson,) Grammar, Mechanics, & Usage Review Capitalize the person’s title when it follows the name on the address or signature line. Capitalize the titles of high-ranking government officials when used with or before their names. Do not capitalize the civil title if it is used instead of the name. (The president will address Congress. /// President Lincoln) Capitalize any title when used as a direct address. (Thank you, Mr. President.) Capitalize points of the compass only when they refer to specific regions. (We had relatives visit from the South. /// Go three miles and turn south.) Always capitalize the first and last words of titles of publications regardless of their parts of speech. Capitalize other words within titles, including the short verb forms “is”, “are”, and “be”. Do not capitalize little words within titles such as: a, an, the, but, as, if, and, or, nor…or prepositions, regardless of their length. Capitalize “federal” or “state” when used as part of an official agency name or in government documents where these terms represent an official name. If they are used in general terms, use lowercase. You may capitalize words such as “department”, “bureau”, and “office” if you have prepared your text in the following way: The Bureau of Land Management (Bureau) has some jurisdiction over Indian lands. The Bureau is finding its administrative role to be challenging. Do not capitalize the names of the seasons. Capitalize the first word of a salutation and the first word of a complimentary close. Capitalize words derived from proper nouns. Capitalize the names of specific course titles. (algebra /// Algebra 2) After a sentence ending with a colon, do not capitalize the first word if it begins a list. Do not capitalize when only one sentence follows a sentence ending with a colon. Capitalize when two or more sentences follow a sentence ending with a colon. 14. Numbers Spell out single-digit whole numbers. Use numerals for numbers greater than nine. (I want five copies. // I want 10 copies.) Grammar, Mechanics, & Usage Review Be consistent within a category. Either spell out or use numerals through the entire sentence. Always spell out simple fractions and use hyphens with them. (one-half) A mixed fraction can be expressed in figures, unless it is the first word of the sentence. The simplest way to express large numbers is best. Round numbers are usually spelled out, but be consistent. (You can earn from one million to five million dollars.) Write decimals in figures. Put a zero in front of a decimal unless the decimal itself begins with zero. (0.79 // .07) With numbers of four or more digits, use commas. Count three spaces to the left of the ones column to place the first comma. If the number contains seven or more digits, continue counting and placing commas after every three places. When writing out a number of four or more digits, do not use a comma. However, do use the word “and” where a decimal point appears in the figure format. The following examples apply when using dates: The meeting is scheduled for June 30. The meeting is scheduled for the 30th of June. When expressing decades, you may spell them out and lowercase them. (the eighties) If you wish to express decades using incomplete numerals, put an apostrophe before the incomplete numeral but not between the year and the “s”. (‘80s) You may also express decades in complete numerals. Don’t use an apostrophe. (1980s) Normally, spell out the time of day in text even with half and quarter hours. With “o’clock”, the number is always spelled out. (She gets up at four thirty every morning.) Use numerals with the time of day when exact times are being emphasized or when using AM or PM. (6:22 // 6:22 AM) Use “noon” and “midnight” rather than “12:00 AM” or “12:00 PM”. Hyphenate all compound numbers from twenty-one through ninety-nine. Write out any number that begins a sentence.