Download Introduction: The West Before 1300 Chapter Overview • Why we

Introduction: The West Before 1300 Chapter Overview •
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Why we study history o We naturally want to know how we came to be who we are and how the world we live in came to be what it is. o History provides insight into present human behavior Human history overview o People lived by hunting and gathering for hundreds of thousands of years o Only 10,000 years ago did humans learn to cultivate plants, herd animals, and make airtight pottery to store food. o River valley civilizations developed just 5,000 years ago which led to better harvest and ultimately increased populations ! These river valley civilizations—ie Nile, Indus, Tigris/Euphrates—invented writing, metallurgy, and commerce. ! Cities and complex religion took form. ! Kings, considered to be representatives of the gods or to be divine themselves, emerged as rulers who formed large armies to protect their power. Section One: Early Humans and their Culture •
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Section Overview o Important dates in the history of the Earth ! Scientist believe Earth to be six billion years old ! Creatures, similar to humans, first appeared three to five million years ago. ! Homo sapiens probably emerged 200,000 years ago • Earliest remains of modern humans date to 90,000 years ago o Humans as cultural beings ! Culture (d)—the ways of living built up by a group and passed from one generation to another; it includes behavior, material things, ideas, institutions, and beliefs. The Paleolithic Age o Lasted from the earliest use of stone tools, nearly 1,000,000 years ago to about 10,000BCE o People existed as hunters, fishers, and gatherers o Humans learned to use sophisticated stone tools, materials like wood, and to control fire o Language developed so they could pass on what they learned o Division of labor ! Men hunted, fished, made tools and weapons and fought against other families, tribes, and clans ! Women gathered nuts, berries, and wild grains, wove baskets, and made clothing • Women probably discovered how to plant and care for seeds leading to the Age of Agriculture—the Neolithic revolution. The Neolithic Age o About 10,000BCE, parts of the Middle East began to shift from hunter-­‐gatherer to agricultural societies. o Invention of pottery made it possible to store surplus liquid and dry foods o Cloth came to be made from flax and wool o Built permanent buildings near the best fields o About 4,000BCE in modern-­‐day Iraq, major urban centers, called civilization appeared ! Urbanism, technology, writing, religion, laws, division of labor, and trade are defining characteristics of civilizations • During this era, someone discovered how to smelt tin and copper to make bronze, a stronger and more useful metal. Section Two: Early Civilizations to about 1000 BCE •
Mesopotamian Civilization o Emerged in the valley between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers known as the Fertile Crescent Sumerians controlled the southern part of the valley (Sumer) close to the head of the Persian Gulf by 3,000BCE ! Another group—known as Semitics—settled upstream • Semitic peoples established a capital at Akkad, near a later city known as Babylon ! The Sumerians were absorbed by the Akkadians whose empire came to be known as Assyria ! By 1900BCE, another Semitic group called the Amorites gained control of the region and established Babylon. ! Babylonian kingdom collapsed after the Hittites and Kassites invaded from the north and east. • After pillaging, the Hittites returned home to Asia Minor • The Kassites remained and ruled Mesopotamia for five centuries Egyptian Civilization o The Nile River, surrounded by desert, produced arable land as it flooded and receded to furnish mud that could produce two crops per year ! Egyptians crafted and maintained sophisticated irrigation ditches to preserve the river’s water and agricultural prosperity ensued o Geographic isolation ! The Sahara Desert to the west and Red Sea to the east made it difficult for invaders to reach Egypt o 3,000 years of ancient Egyptian history ! Menes united upper and lower Egypt • Unification and centralization was necessary to control irrigation ! Alexander the Great conquered Egypt in 332 BCE o Periods in ancient Egyptian history ! Old Kingdom (2700-­‐2200 BCE) • Pharaohs reign with absolute power o Carefully regulated the peasantry and taxed it heavily o Believed to be a living god and, therefore, government was one aspect of religion. o Established the capital at Memphis ! First Intermediate Period in Egyptian history (2200-­‐2052BCE) o Power of kings waned during this period and nobles gained more independence and influence o Governors of different regions—called nomes—gained hereditary claim to their offices ! Middle Kingdom • Nomarchs—or governors—of Thebes in northern Egypt gained control of the country and established the Middle Kingdom about 2052 • Restored pharaohs power over all of Egypt • Encouraged trade and expanded Egyptian influence into Palestine and Ethiopia • Middle Kingdom disintegrated and nobles gained control ! Second Intermediate Period • Decentralization made Egypt vulnerable to invasion • Hyksos came from the east and conquered Egypt around 1700BCE o Hyksos—likely a coalition of Semitic peoples from Palestine and Syria ! New Kingdom • Around 1575BCE a dynasty from Thebes drove out the Hyksos and began the New Kingom • Pharaohs assembled large armies and sought to establish an empire • Extended power into Palestine, Syria, and beyond the upper Euphrates River • While attempting to expand, Egypt was weakened by continuous conflict with the Hittites in Asia Minor and became victim of foreign invasion and rule Palestine and the Religion of the Israelites o Three great religions of the modern world outside the Far East—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—originated in Palestine. o Israelites in Palestine !
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History of Israelites must be approached with some caution as their story is a complicated collection of historical narrative, wisdom literature, poetry, law, and religious witness much of which is collected in the Hebrew Bible ! Story of the Israelites settlement in Palestine • The patriarch Abraham came from Ur in Mesopotamia about 1900BCE and wandered west to tend his flocks in the land of Canaanites • Some of his people settled there and others continued to Egypt • By the thirteenth century BCE, led by Moses, they had left Egypt and wandered in the desert until they reached Canaan • They established a civilization that reached its height under David and Solomon in the tenth century BCE • Solomon’s sons did not maintain the unity of the kingdom, and it split into two parts: Israel in the north and Judah in the south ! Rise of great empires to the east led to disaster for Israelites • Assyrians conquered the northern kingdom of Israel in 722BCE • Judah, the southern kingdom, fell to the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II in 586BCE o Babylonians destroyed the great temple built by Solomon and took thousands of Jews back to Babylon as slaves o When Persia conquered Babylon, the Jews were allowed to return to their homeland thus ending this period known as the Babylonian Captivity of the Jews • The area of the old kingdom of the Jews in Palestine, however, was dominated for 2,500 years until the establishment of the state of Israel in CE 1948. Judaism and monotheism ! First to develop a religious system based on the existence of one universal God ! Fundamental tenants of Judaism • God made a covenant with Abraham • God is a severe but just judge • Ritual and sacrifice is not enough to achieve his approval o People must be righteous, and God himself appears to be bound to act righteously ! Role of the prophets • prophets explained that the misfortunes of the Jews came as a result of their misdeeds, but they promised the redemption of the Jews if they repented. • Prophets spoke of a Messiah (deliverer) o Christianity emerged from this tradition as it maintains that Jesus of Nazareth was the Messiah !
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Section Three: The Greeks • Section Overview o Western civilization as a distinct culture began with the Greeks o Greek values and lifestyle spread across the Mediterranean basin and impacted the Romans o Minoan civilization on the island of Crete influenced the Greeks ! Minoan civilization was literate and built extensive bureaucracy that served the king o Greeks established cities along the shores of the Mediterranean which put them in close contact with the Near East • The Polis o Polis is often defined as a “city-­‐state” but this definition is misleading ! All Greek poleis began as agricultural communities; some morphed into cities but not all. ! Most thought of the polis as a community of relatives ! Originally the word polis referred to a citadel (ie, Acropolis in Athens or the Acrocorinth in Corinth) ! Poleis were usually built inland to avoid pirate raids ! Eventually, the polis grew to be the center of Greek social life distinguished by conversation and argumentation in the open air o By 750BCE the institution of monarchy disappeared and the polis was ruled as an aristocratic republic o During the eighth century BCE, the Greeks expanded far beyond the Aegean Sea and established poleis from Spain to the Black Sea They came into sustained contact with the Near East where they learned arts and borrowed a writing system from the Semitic scripts and added vowels to create the first true alphabet • Alphabet was easy to learn and promoted a literate society ! Impact of colonization on Greeks • Contact with others fostered a sense of Panhellenic spirit Greek religion ! Pantheon • Consisted of twelve gods who lived on Mount Olympus ! Notable shrines to gods • Statue of Zeus at Olympia • Delphi for Apollo • Isthmus of Corinth for Poseidon ! Held athletic contests in honor of the gods Sparta ! Spartans created a military society in order to maintain dominance over helots, the peasants over whom they ruled ! Spartan men • At age seven Spartan boys were taken from their mothers and trained • At age twenty they entered the army and lived in barracks until the age of thirty o If a Spartan decided to marry, he visited his wife infrequently or in stealth • At age thirty, they became full citizens • Compulsory military service ended at age 60 ! Spartan women • Educated to subordinate themselves to service of the state through motherhood and child rearing ! Spartan constitution • Contained elements of monarchy, oligarchy, and democracy o Two kings with limited power o Council of elders who had important judicial functions o Spartan assembly consisted of all males over the age of thirty • Five annually elected ephors controlled foreign policy, presided over the assembly, and guarded against helot rebellions Athens ! Athens was a typical aristocratic polis until the sixth century BCE • State governed by the Areopagus, a council of nobles named for the hill on which it met ! 594BCE constitution changed by Solon to move Athens toward democracy • Expanded citizenship to include all males, even immigrant craftsmen • Divided citizens into four classes according to wealth • Established a Council of Four Hundred to check the power of the Areopagus • Created a popular assembly ! Solon’s constitution was overthrown by Pisistratus, who established his own rule; his son, Hippias, was deposed in 510BCE. ! Clisthenes instituted another series of reforms that implemented real Athenian democracy • Created the deme, a political unit that replaced clan brotherhood and weeded out a system in which noble birth dominated • Established a Council of Five Hundred which dealt with foreign policy and finances • All final decision rested with the assembly composed of all adult male citizens • These reforms nurtured strong patriotism ! In 490 BCE, Darius, king of Persia, attempted to restore the tyrant Hippias as leader of Athens. • Athenians, led by Miltiades, resisted and won a victory at Marathon ! In 480 BCE, the Persians under Xerxes again attempted to conquer Greece • Greek city-­‐states responded by forming a defensive league o Sparta, as leader of the land forces, held off the Persians at the battle of Thermopylae o Athens led Greek naval forces to a great victory at Salamis !
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Two important developments occurred following the defeat of the Persians • Pericles revised the constitution of Athens to make it even more democratic as every decision had to be approved by a popular assembly of people, not representatives • There was no police force, standing army, or any other way to coerce the people. o The Peloponnesian War ! second development following the defeat of the Persians was the splitting of the Greek world into two spheres of influence, one dominated by Sparta and the other Athens. ! story of the Peloponnesian War was recorded by the historian Thucydides. • the war began in 431BCE and ended in 404BCE • farmland was ravaged, crops and homes destroyed, and commerce was interrupted. • people abandoned patriotism and morality ! In the end, Sparta defeated Athens • The upheaval of the war damaged the sense of community to the common good required for life in the polis. Greek Political Philosophy and the Crisis of the Polis o Socrates (469-­‐399BCE) ! questioned and examined people about their understanding of human behavior ! disliked democracy as he believed it relied on amateurs to make important political decisions ! he was condemned to death in 399 BCE on charges of bringing new gods into the city and corrupting the youth o Plato (429-­‐347BCE) ! most important of Socrates’ associates ! first political philosopher ! founded the Academy, a center of philosophical investigation as a school for training statesmen and citizens ! Plato’s view of the polis • believed the virtues of a polis were order, harmony, and justice • goal of the polis was to produce good people • only a few philosophers whose training, character, and intellect allowed them to see reality were fit to rule o Plato outlined the training of these leaders in his book The Republic ! According to Plato, the way to harmony was to destroy the causes of strife: private property, the family, or anything else that stood between the individual and his loyalty to the polis o Aristotle (384-­‐322BCE) ! Pupil of Plato ! Founded his own school in Athens, the Lyceum • differed from the Academy as it s members took little interest in mathematics and instead were concerned with gathering, ordering, and analyzing all human knowledge ! Aristotle’s method • began with observations of empirical evidence • to this evidence he applied reason and discovered inconsistencies or difficulties • next, he introduced metaphysical principles to explain the problems or to reconcile the inconsistencies ! Believed in Ideas or Forms—transcendental concepts outside the experience of most people ! Combined the practical analysis of political and economic realities with the moral and political purposes of the traditional defenders of the polis The Empire of Alexander the Great o The conquest of the Greek poleis by the kingdom of Macedonia in the fourth century BCE is what brought their collapse. o Macedonians inhabited the land north of Thessaly ! governed by a king chosen partly by descent and partly by the approval of the army ! under Phillip II, Macedonia built a powerful army and moved steadily against the Greek cities !
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Battle of Chaeronea (338BCE)—Macedonian army defeated an alliance of Greek cities thus ending their freedom and autonomy • Phillip II was assassinated in 336BCE Alexander the Great succeeded Phillip II ! led his army across and conquered Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Persia, and Mesopotamia ! he planned to build vast infrastructure of cities, roads and harbors but died of fever in 323 BCE at age 33. ! His conquest spread Greek culture throughout the eastern Mediterranean •
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Section Four: Rome •
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The Republic and Expansion in the Mediterranean o Early years of Rome ! Ruled by kings from 753 BCE until 509 BCE ! The republic replaced the monarchy after nobles led a revolution o Republican government, dominated by the institution of an aristocratic Senate, endured for almost five centuries. o Roman expansion ! by 265 BCE, the Romans had conquered most of central and southern Italy • many conquered people retained the rights of local self-­‐government and could gain full citizenship if they moved to Rome o they did, however, follow Roman foreign policy and provided soldiers to serve in the Roman legions • some states became allies of Rome on the basis of treaties ! Roman government placed colonies on some conquered lands and placed permanent settlements of veteran soldiers in the territory of the recently defeated enemies ! Most of Rome’s allies remained loyalty in hope of achieving the status of full Roman citizenship o Battles with Carthage ! First and Second Punic Wars (264-­‐241BCE and 218-­‐202BCE) • Rome emerged as the dominant power in the Mediterranean o Following the wars with Carthage, Rome moved on the lands to the east ! By 168 BCE, the Romans effectively governed Greece as a protectorate o Rome established provinces in Sicily, Spain, Sardinia, and Corsica ! they did not retain self-­‐rule and the people were not Roman citizens, did not serve in the army, but rather subjects who paid tribute o Roman culture borrowed heavily from Greek culture (literature, religion, art, philosophy), but held Greek government in contempt From Republic to Empire o Financial problems caused by overseas conquests led to a sharp divide between the rich and poor in Rome ! Much of the farmland in Italy was destroyed in the Punic wars and more was bought up by nobles • many veterans returning from war found themselves landless and moved to large urban areas ! Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus, who were brothers, attempted to carry out program of land redistribution • nobles violently resisted their policies and both were assassinated o Financial problems led to the practice whereby generals controlled the government ! many generals grew famous from their conquests and appealed to the people • Marius (157-­‐86 BCE)won many battles in North Africa and dominated politics for a while • Sulla (138-­‐78 BCE) established a dictatorship after a series of military victories ! two generals, Julius Cesar and Gnaeus Pompey, compete for power • they tried to share political power for a while but all cooperation broke down by 49 BCE • Cesar defied the Roman Senate by leading his army out of Gaul and across the Rubicon River • Cesar defeated the forces of Pompey and the Senate Cesar governed Rome alone until his assassination in 44 BCE Octavian, the nephew of Cesar, rallied Cesar’s army and engaged in a civil war • Octavian won the naval battle of Actium, and at age 32, stood as the master of the Mediterranean world The Principate and the Empire o Octavian, well aware of his uncle’s fate, included elements of republicanism in his government to give the appearance that he was sharing power with the Senate a citizens of Rome ! took the title princeps, or “first citizen” ! the Senate gave him the title “Augustus” which carried connotations of veneration, majesty, and holiness o Historians speak of Rome’s first emperor as Augustus and of his regime as the Principate ! Octavian united political and military power which made it possible for him to install rational, efficient, and stable government in the provinces for the first time ! Principate of Augustus brought great prosperity • conquest in Egypt brought in wealth • Rome returned to small-­‐scale farming as a result of the policy through which Augustus endowed veterans with small plots of fertile land ! Late Republic and Augustan periods was a high period in Roman culture • Cicero (106-­‐43BCE)—late Republic period o orator and poet who studied moral philosophy, ethics, politics, and law o believed in a world governed by divine and natural law that human reason could perceive and human institutions reflect • Vegil (70-­‐19 BCE) o most important of Augustan poets o wrote Aeneid ! national epic that glorified civic greatness represented by Augustus and the peace and prosperity he brought to Rome o Augustus’ successors came to be called imperator—from which comes our word emperor ! some emperors—like Vespasian increased the dignity and prestige of the Senate—while others like Caligula, Nero, and Domitian, degraded the Senate and paraded their despotic power ! provinces flourished economically and accepted Roman rule • legionnaires often married local women and settled in the provinces they conquered ! emperors became deified ! Administration of the provinces • Municipal charters vested power in the hands of local councils and magistrates elected from the local aristocracy o A shift in the notion of civic virtue occurred by the start of the second century ! Whereas members of the upper classes had previously vied with one another for election to municipal offices, by the second century emperors had to force members of the ruling classes to accept public office. • This waning desire to serve arose, in large part, from the imperial practice of holding magistrates and local councilmen personally responsible for revenues due. o Financial problems surface by the start of the second century due to the rising costs of: ! maintaining a large standing army ! keeping the people of Rome happy with subsidized food and public entertainment ! pay a large bureaucracy ! wage wars to defend the frontiers against barbarian armies Christianity o Jesus of Nazareth ! life and message • born in Judea in the time of Augustus • great teacher who gained mass appeal among the poor • preached about love, charity, and humility !
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why he rubbed some the wrong way • criticized practices in Judaism • upper-­‐classes feared his popularity among the poor ! death • executed by Roman soldiers in Jerusalem probably in 30CE • his followers believed that he was resurrected three days after his death o Spread of Christianity ! Paul of Tarsus—missionary responsible for spreading Christian beliefs to the whole eastern Mediterranean world and to Rome itself ! Christianity had its greatest success in the cities among the poor and uneducated o Organization of Christianity ! By the second century, a bishop emerged to lead Church activities in different cities • bishops extended their power outside cities to surrounding towns and country sides • Apostolic Succession o belief that the powers Jesus had given his original disciples were passed on from bishop to bishop through ordination ! Canon of doctrine included the Old Testament, the Gospels, and the Epistles of Saint Paul, among other writings. • Rome became the most important center of Christianity by 200CE Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire o The Crisis of the Third Century ! Persians pressed from the east and German tribes endangered the frontiers on the west and north ! army no longer consisted of citizens but instead slaves, gladiators, barbarians, and brigands conscripted to fight ! emperors could no longer afford to maintain armies and relied on the people of Rome to provide food, supplies, money, and labor ! upper classes forced to serve as city administrators without pay o The Emperor Diocletian (CE. 284-­‐305) responded to the crisis by dividing the empire into four administrative units, each with its own ruler and capital ! Diocletian is also known for his policy of systematic persecution of Christians o Constantine (CE 306-­‐337) reunited the empire in CE 330 and established his capital at Constantinople in the East ! Constantinople became the center of a flourishing culture that we call Byzantine ! Constantine championed the Christianity • After praying to the Christian God, he won the Battle of Milvian Bridge which led him to grant privileges to the Christian Church o The Western portion of the Roman Empire devolved into rural agrarianism and suffered from barbarian invasions ! the villa became the basic unit of life ! the coloni, small landholders who were original settlers, gave their services to the local magnates in return for economic assistance and protection ! failure of the imperial authority to maintain roads and constant danger of robber bands slowed trade and communications o The Christian Church came to dominate western Europe ! Christian philosophy—with a God who suffered, died, and resurrected—and fostered a sense of community, equality, and the promise of immortality, attracted many during this tumultuous time o Major barbarian victories that led to the collapse of the western part of the Roman empire ! Battle of Adrianople (378 CE)-­‐-­‐German tribes defeated the armies led by the emperor Valens ! In 476, the Western Emperor Romulus was deposed and replaced by the barbarian Odoacer, a Ostrogoth chieftan. !
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Section Five: Europe Enters the Middle Ages •
The Byzantine Empire The eastern half of the Roman Empire endured after the fall of the West until 1453 when it fell to the Ottoman Empire o Between 324 and 632 the Byzantine Empire experienced a cultural golden age (ie. Code Justinian, Hagia Sophia) o Islamic armies began constantly attacks on it after the year 700 o Emperor Leo III, by forbidding the display of images in eastern Christian churches, ignited a schism between western Roman Catholic and Byzantine Christianity. The Rise of Islam o Muhammad (570-­‐632), the founder of Islam (“submission”) received his call to be prophet at age forty. o Through a series of revelations, Allah revealed the Qur’an to Muhammad o Core Muslim beliefs and practices ! prayer five times a day ! generous alms giving ! fasting during daylight hours for one month each year (Ramadan) ! pilgrimage to Mecca o Conquests ! By the middle of the eighth century, Muslims had conquered the southern and eastern Mediterranean coastline and occupied parts of Spain • Europeans grew suspicious of the expanding Islamic world o At Poitiers in 732, Charles Martel, the leader of the Franks, defeated an Arab army and ended the threat of Arab expansion into western Europe by way of Spain New Importance of the Christian Church o Local bishops and cathedral chapters filled the vacuum of authority left by the removal of Roman governors. o The Church possessed an effective hierarchical administration staffed by the most educated men in Europe o Monasticism became the purest form of religious practice in the Middle Ages o The bishops of Rome made a claim to supremacy over all other clergymen which led to the development of the doctrine of “papal primacy.” Charlemagne o Charlemagne, the king of the Franks, created a centralized empire in western Europe that included modern France, Belgium, Holland, Switzerland, most of western Germany, much of Italy, parts of Spain, and the island of Corsica. o Charlemagne befriended the right people ! he developed close ties with powerful nobles ! Pope Leo II, who regarded Charlemagne as his protector, crowned him Holy Roman Emperor on Christmas Day in 800. o Administration of his empire ! appointed counts to oversee districts in his kingdom o Charlemagne grew wealthy through conquest and used the booty to improve learning and culture o Charlemagne’s empire disintegrated shortly after the death of his son and successor Louis the Pious o Late ninth and tenth centuries saw waves of attacks by the Vikings from Scandinavia, the Magyars from eastern Europe, and the Muslims in the south. ! These conditions led to the development of a feudal society Feudal and Manorial Society o feudal society (definition)—the social, political, military, and economic system that emerged in response to the invasions of the ninth and tenth centuries ! vassalage—a pledge of fealty to a lord in exchange for a fief o manor system and serfdom ! village farms, usually owned by a local landlord, were called manors ! peasants labored on farms and, in exchange, the lord gave them small plots of land in exchange for a portion of the crops ! peasants who entered the service of a lord without any property ended up as serfs who were not free o
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Section Six: Church and State in the High Middle Ages •
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Section Overview o High Middle Ages ! period of political expansion and the emergence of national monarchs in England, France, and Germany ! revival of trade and commerce, the growth of towns, and the emergence of a merchant class ! Church reaches its height of power after winning the Investiture Struggle The Division of Christendom o Eastern vs. Western Church ! Greek in the East and Latin in the West ! West demanded clerical celibacy, the East permitted the marriage of parish priests ! Eastern church opposed western tradition of icons and imagery in worship ! East put more stress on the Bible and of the ecumenical councils than on papal primacy The Rise of Towns o Urban centers and culture revived during the High Middle Ages o Bourgeois, or burgher, was first used in the eleventh century to describe the newly powerful townspeople ! clergy and nobility grew suspicious of merchant class ! common people admired the merchants and the new economic opportunities made possible through commerce o Merchant and artisan guilds emerged during the eleventh and twelfth centuries to protect them from policies created by the nobility o Sometimes towns formed independent communes and allied with kings against the landed nobility. The Crusades o Pope Urban II called for the First Crusade in 1095 at Clermont in France ! Crusader armies took control of Jerusalem in 1099 but it fell back into Arab hands by the middle of the eleventh century o Long-­‐term achievements of the Crusades ! Stimulated trade between western Europe and the East • Merchants from Genoa, Pisa, and Venice prospered • The Rise of New Monarchies o England ! William of Normandy conquered England in 1066 and centralized the government of England o France ! Norman conquest of England led French kings to solidify their power in order to compete with an increasingly centralized England o Holy Roman Empire ! acted collectively in terms of foreign policy but local rulers enjoyed autonomy over domestic issues Universities and Scholasticism o Due to Muslim scholars, the works of Aristotle, the writings of Euclid and Ptolemy, formulas of Arab mathematicians, and texts on Roman law became available to western scholars o Early universities ! Bologna (1158)—specialized in law ! University of Paris-­‐-­‐theology ! Oxford and Cambridge—liberal arts and medicine, theology, and law