Download SYNTAX Units of syntactic analysis (from the lower to the higher

Lingua e traduzione inglese 1 prima lingua / seconda lingua / OCI (canale A-F) a.a. 2014-15 - prof. Pierini
SYNTAX
Units of syntactic analysis (from the lower to the higher):
• word (the smallest unit). Words are classified into word-classes, each with its
characteristics.
• phrase (part of the clause): a sequence of words consisting of a ‘head’ and
(optionally) a number of closely related elements, referred to as ‘modifiers’:
(1) an ancient book → noun phrase (NP)
(2) behind the door→ prepositional phrase (PP)
• clause (part of the sentence): a sequence of words that cannot stand alone but
depends on another clause defined ‘main clause’, and consisting of a subject
(optional) and a predicate containing a finite or a non-finite verb form:
after waiting half an hour
• sentence (the largest unit consisting of one or more clauses): a sequence of
words capable of standing alone, consisting of a subject and a predicate containing
a finite verb form:
(1) I left him a note. (one clause)
(2) He was taller than I expected. (two clauses)
Each word (lexical item) belongs to a word-class. In English there are 8
word-classes: noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, article, adverb, preposition,
conjunction.
Inflected words vs. invariable words:
• noun, verb and adjectives can be inflected (book/books, play/plays/played,
nice/nicer/nicest);
• article (also called ‘determiner’), pronoun, adverb, preposition, conjunction
are invariable.
Lexical words vs grammatical words:
• lexical words express a full meaning , fall into 4 word-classes (noun, verb,
adjective, adverb in -ly), and constitute a large and open-ended system:
some words can become obsolete, while new words are used.
• grammatical words do not express a full meaning, fall into 4 word-classes
(pronoun, article/determiner, preposition, conjunction), and constitute a
small and closed system (these words change very slowly over time).
Examples of grammatical words: pronoun (he, she); determiner (the, a, this, my);
preposition (in, on, above); conjunction (however); auxiliaries (be and have when
functioning as auxiliaries, modal auxiliaries).
Word-classes
Noun
• concrete vs. abstract nouns (table, happiness);
• common noun vs. proper names. Common nouns (table) denote a class of
referents with given characteristics. Proper names are written with an initial
capital letter, and denote a single referent in the extra-linguistic context;
Lingua e traduzione inglese 1 prima lingua / seconda lingua / OCI (canale A-F) a.a. 2014-15 - prof. Pierini
there are proper names of people (John Smith) and places (London, Great
Britain).
• countable vs. uncountable (or mass) nouns: countable nouns can occur with
numbers (2 cars) and indefinite article (a car), and can be pluralized (cars).
Mass nouns do not occur with numbers and the indefinite article, cannot be
pluralised (water)
Its function is to be the head of a phrase called ‘noun phrase’ (NP).
Verb
• main verbs vs. auxiliaries. Be and have can function as main verbs as in:
(1)The hotel has 23 suites and 35 bedrooms;
(2) John is very tall.
Or they can function as auxiliary:
(3) Jane has gone home.
(4) it is going to rain.
Auxiliaries: be, have + 9 modals + dummy operator do.
• regular vs. irregular verbs: plays/played vs. sing/sang/sung
• finite forms vs. non-finite forms:
finite forms have a tense marker (stay, stayed)
non-finite forms are: past participle (gone), -ing form (going), infinitive (to go)
• transitive vs. intransitive verbs:
transitive verbs occur with an object (Mary hates him);
intransitive verbs occur with a complement (We went to the theatre)
Its function is to be the head of a phrase called ‘verb phrase’ (VP).
Adjective
• gradable vs. non-gradable adjectives.
Gradable adjectives form comparative and superlative forms by adding a
morpheme (nicer, nicest) o by inserting an adverb (more unhappy, most unhappy)
Non-gradable adjectives refer to nationality, material, shape or colour (a Chinese
writer, a plastic ornament, a square table, a blue box).
• Attributive / predicative position. They can occur before the noun (attributive
position, as in a big farm) or in the predicate after a copular verb
(predicative position, as in the farm is big). A small number of adjectives can
occur only in a predicative position: asleep, alone, afraid. Some can only
occur in an attributive position: former, mere, sheer.
Its function is to be the head of a phrase called ‘adjective phrase’ (AdjP)
Adverb
• -ly adverbs, formed by derivation from adjectives (completely)
• Intensifiers (quite, very)
• Adverbs of place (here, there) and time (now, later)
Its function is to be the head of a phrase called ‘adverb phrase’ (AdvP)
Lingua e traduzione inglese 1 prima lingua / seconda lingua / OCI (canale A-F) a.a. 2014-15 - prof. Pierini
Pronoun
Although grammatical words, they function syntactically in similar ways to
nouns, for example they can be subjects: Mary’s aunt is tired/ She is tired.
They can replace a whole noun phrase.
• Pronouns vs. possessive determiners (my, our, your, his, her, its, their)
which do not replace a whole NP, instead they premodify the head noun (my
book).
First person
Subject pronouns:
Singular
Plural
Object pronouns:
Singular
Plural
Possessive pronouns:
Singular
Plural
Second person
Third person
I
we
you
you
he, she, it
they
me
us
You
you
him, her, it
them
mine
ours
Yours
yours
his, hers, its
theirs
Determiner
They are situated before the noun and before any adjectives.
• Articles: definite article (the), indefinite article (a/an).
• Demonstrative adjectives: this/these, that/those. They differ in indicating the
proximity or the distance between the speaker and the referent. In order to
understand their meaning it is necessary to refer to the situational context.
• possessive determiners: my, your, his, her, its, our, their. They are similar to
personal pronouns but combine with nouns: my garage, your friend.
Preposition
The preposition always introduces a noun phrase.
Its basic function is to be the head of a phrase called ‘prepositional phrase’ (PP).
They usually provide information about space or time:
(1) The cat came into the room.
(2) The concert will take place on Saturday
• one-word prepositions (under, through, by, near) vs. two- or three-word
prepositions (by means of)
Conjunction
• coordinating conjunctions: and (addition), but (contrast), or (alternative).
(1) I like John and Andy
(2) He was firm but nice.
(3) You can pay in cash or by cheque
• Subordinating conjunctions (if, when, that, although). They introduce a
clause that sets the scene for the main clause or acts as the object of the
main verb:
(1) When you get to the hotel, give me a ring.
(2) I know that you have taken it.
Lingua e traduzione inglese 1 prima lingua / seconda lingua / OCI (canale A-F) a.a. 2014-15 - prof. Pierini
Auxiliary verbs
They are so called because they support the lexical verbs expressing some of
the meanings that are needed by all verbs (tense).
• be and have
• 9 modals (can, could, will, would, shall, should, may, might, must) which lack
inflections, are always followed by a bare lexical base, and cannot occur after to
(*to must)
In negative and interrogative sentences, they occur in specific positions:
(1) She will not come.
(2) Jane hasn’t been hurt.
(3) Has Jane been hurt?
• dummy operator do in negative and interrogative sentences:
(1) He doesn’t know Mary
(2) Does Henry know the answer?
Phrases
Words are combined together to make larger structures called ‘phrases’.
Phrases are usually made up of more than one word. Each phrase consists of a head
(compulsory) and some optional elements.
Phrases form part of larger structures called ‘clauses’.
There are 5 types of phrases.
The noun phrase (NP)
It is centred on a head noun, which is the compulsory constituent of the
phrase. Optionally, there are other additional elements that, according to their
position, are classified into premodifiers and postmodifiers.
•
head
N, Pronoun:
Mary, he
• premodifiers
a) determiners
determiner + N:
demonstrative (this book); article (the/ a car); possessive (my computer)
b) enumerators
enumerator+ N
Det + enumerator + N
all/ some chairs; two books; no answer
her three dogs; the ten officers; my first coffee
c) adjectives
Det + Adj + N (head)
a black cat
Up to four adjectives can occur before the noun:
(1) that beautiful green Chinese silk skirt
(2) a lovely, big, square, wooden table
They tend to occur in a certain order according to semantic factors:
evaluative adjective + size + shape + age + colour + nationality + material + N
d) (de)verbal adjectives (derived from verbs)
past participle + N
written documents
Lingua e traduzione inglese 1 prima lingua / seconda lingua / OCI (canale A-F) a.a. 2014-15 - prof. Pierini
-ing form + N
surviving people, interesting book
e) nouns (precede the head but function as the other premodifiers)
N + N (head)
N + N +N (head)
N + N +N + N (head)
computer screen
pet food dealer
City business racket investigation
f) Saxon genitive + N (head)
John’s car
• postmodifiers
a) prepositional phrase (preposition + NP)
Det + N (head) + PP
the characteristics of the English language
the chair near the door
b) Relative clause (clause introduced by a relative pronoun (that, who, which, where, when)
Det + N + relative clause
the examples that will be presented here
the thief who stole my car
the place where I lost my wallet
the book I prefer
c) –ing clause (-ing form + additional constituents)
N + -ing clause
people living near the university
d) Past participle clause (past participle + PP)
Det + N + past participle clause
a proposal made by the president
e) apposition (two noun phrases are juxtaposed because having the same referent)
NP + NP
Mr Cameron, the Prime Minister
My sister, Sandra
The Ford Fiesta, my new car
The Verb Phrase (VP)
It fulfils the role of predicate in the clause. It consists of a verb (head), which
is compulsory and optional constituents.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
The party started at 9 o’clock
I like cherries
The man gave a leaflet to John
He drives slowly
V
V
V
V
+
+
+
+
PP
NP
NP + PP
AdvP
The verbal element can consist of:
a) main verb: started
be + complement: she is a doctor
b) auxiliary + main verb: I have seen (present perfect: have + past participle)
the man was killed (passive: be + past participle)
she is making a cake (progressive: be + -ing form)
c) modal + main verb: You can go now.
d) modal + auxiliary + main verb: this book should be read
The adjective phrase (AdjP)
It consist of an adjective (head) and optionally of a premodifier and a postmodifier.
Lingua e traduzione inglese 1 prima lingua / seconda lingua / OCI (canale A-F) a.a. 2014-15 - prof. Pierini
• head: the pretty girl, the girl is pretty.
• Premodifier
adverb + adjective (head)
incredibly untidy
• Postmodifier
Adjective + PP
Adjective + clause
sad about her mother’s illness
happy to go to the party
Adverb phrase (AdvP)
It is made up of an adverb and optionally of a premodifying intensifier (adverb).
• Head
• Premodifier
adverb + adverb
slowly
very slowly
Prepositional Phrase (PP)
It is made up of a preposition and a NP. A PP can be used as:
• postmodifier of NP:
• adverbial in a clause
the man in the garden is tall
the woman went to the theatre (space)
He worked on Saturday
(time)
They finished their meal in total silence
(manner)
Adverbials express the circumstances (time, space, manner) in which the
action of the clause takes place.