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Written Exam #4 Kinesiology Review Erector Spinae Group Spinalis Longissimus Iliocostalis Erector Spinae Spinalis Most medial portion of erectors – attaches to spinous processes Erector Spinae Spinalis O. Spinous processes of upper lumbar and lower thoracic vertebrae (thoracis) Ligamentum nuchae, spinous processes of C7 (cervicis) I. Spinous processes of upper thoracic (thoracis) Spinous processes of cervicals (except C1) (cervicis) A. Extend and laterally flex vertebrae to same side Erector Spinae Longissimus Intermediate member of erector spinae – it is the longest. Attaches to transverse processes of thoracic and cervical vertebrae, as well as ribs, and mastoid process Erector Spinae Longissimus O. Common tendon (thoracis) Transverse processes of upper 5 thoracic vertebrae (cervicis and capitis) I. Lower 9 ribs and transverse processes of thoracic vertebrae (thoracis) Transverse processes of cervical vertebrae (cervicis) Mastoid process of temporal bone (capitiis) A. Extend and laterally flex vertebrae to same side Erector Spinae Iliocostalis Most lateral member of the erector group – attaches to transverse processes and to all 12 ribs Erector Spinae Iliocostalis O. Common tendon (lumborum) Posterior surface of ribs 1-12 I. Transverse processes of lumbar vertebrae 1-3, posterior surface of ribs 1-12, and transverse processes of lower cervicals A. Extend and laterally flex vertebrae to same side Muscles of the Back Posterior view, deep layer Multiifiidi Rotatores Quadratus Lumborum Transversospinalis Group Multifidi and Rotatores Both muscles originate on transverse processes and insert on spinous processes, and have the same actions. Multifidi are steeper and longer than rotatores. Multifidi O. I. Sacrum and transverse processes of lumbar through cervical vertebrae Spinous processes of lumbar vertebrae through C2, inserting 2-4 vertebrae above origin A. Bilaterally – extend vertebral column Unilaterally – rotate vertebral column to opposite side Rotatores O. Transverse processes of lumbar through cervical vertebrae I Spinous processes of all vertebrae, lumbar through C2 (spans 1-2 vertebrae). A. Bilaterally – extend vertebral column B. Unilaterally – rotate vertebral column to opposite side Semispinalis Captits O. Transverse processes C4-T5 I. Between superior and inferior nuchal lines of occiput A. Bilaterally – extend vertebral column and head Unilaterally – rotation to opposite side Hint – name includes the insertion (capitis = head) Muscles of Posterior Neck Posterior view, intermediate layer Semispinalis capitis Rotatores Multifidi NOTICE All of the erector spinae laterally flex or extend the spine Multifidi, rotatores and semispinalis capitis rotate or extend the spine. NOTICE All of the erector spinae laterally flex or extend the spine Multifidi, rotatores and semispinalis capitis rotate or extend the spine. Quadratus Lumborum O. Posterior iliac crest I. 12th rib and transverse processes of L1-L4 A. Bilaterally – fix 12th rib during inhalation and exhalation Unilaterally – laterally tilt the pelvis, laterally flex vertebral column to same side, assist to extend vertebral column Notice – yet another side-bending muscle Rectus Abdominis O. Pubic crest and pubic symphysis I. Cartilages of ribs 5, 6, and 7, and xyphoid process A. Flex vertebral column, tilt pelvis posteriorly Diaphragm O. Inner surface of lower 6 ribs, upper two or three lumbar vertebrae, inner part of xyphoid process I. Central tendon A. Draw down central tendon and increases volume of thoracic cavity during inhalation Diaphragm O. Inner surface of lower 6 ribs, upper two or three lumbar vertebrae, inner part of xyphoid process I. Central tendon A. Draw down central tendon and increases volume of thoracic cavity during inhalation Pectoralis Minor O. Third, fourth and fifth ribs I. Corocoid process of scapula A. Depress, abduct and downwardly rotate scapula Scalenes O. Transverse processes of cervical vertebrae I. First and second ribs A. Unilaterally – laterally flex head/neck to same side, rotate to opposite side Bilaterally - elevate ribs during inhalation Masseter O. Zygomatic arch I. Angle and ramus of mandible A. Elevate mandible Cells of the body metabolize nutrients, producing wastes such as nitrogen, ammonia , and urea which are toxic to the body. Other substances also accumulate as a result of metabolic activities: sodium chloride, sodium sulfate, phosphate, hydrogen molecules, and ions. All of these waste materials must be excreted from the body for homeostasis to be maintained and for metabolism to function optimally. Several systems contribute to waste elimination – respiratory, integumentary, digestive, and urinary . The kidneys within the urinary system filter the waste products from the blood and produce urine. It travels through the ureters and down to the urinary bladder, which contains it until expelling it out of the body through the urethra. Kidneys Ureters Urethra Urinary Bladder Eliminates wastes and foreign substances Regulates chemical composition of blood Regulates blood pH Regulates blood volume and fluid balance Regulates blood pressure Maintains homeostasis Kidneys Principal organs of the urinary system located in the upper lumbar region. They process blood and form urine to be excreted. Renal cortex Outer region of the kidney where the nephron's glomerulus and Bowman's capsule are located. Renal medulla Inner region of the kidney where the nephron's loop of Henle is located. Nephron Kidney's filtering unit. Parts: glomerulus, Bowman's capsule, renal tubule . Glomerulus In the nephron, a small ball of fine capillaries within the Bowman's capsule. Bowman's capsule Hollow cup-shaped mouth of a nephron. Filtrate Resulting fluid filtered from the blood in the nephron of the kidney. After processing it becomes urine. Renal tubule Small tube within the nephron through which filtrate flows as it is being processed. Subdivided into proximal and distal tubule and the loop of Henle. Collecting duct Structure made up of the distal tubules of several nephrons. Joins several larger ducts to become the renal papilla. Renal papilla Structure made up of multiple collecting ducts that join together. Calyx (pl. calyces) Cup-like structure protruding from the renal papilla in the kidney. Minor calyces join to form a major calyx that leads to the renal pelvis. Renal pelvis Large urine collection reservoir within the kidney. Forms the upper region of the ureter. Bowman's capsule → Renal tubule → Collecting duct → Renal papilla → Minor calyx → Major calyx → Renal pelvis → Ureter Juxtaglomerular apparatus Structure within the kidney that assists in maintaining blood pressure. Consists of juxtaglomerular cells and macula densa. Renal artery → Afferent arteriole → Glomerulus → Efferent arteriole → Peritubular capillaries → Renal venule → Renal vein → Inferior vena cava Step 1: Filtration Water and small solids in the blood pass through the filtration membrane and enter the Bowman's capsule. Proteins and blood cells remain in the bloodstream. Step 2: Reabsorption stream. 99% of the filtrate is reabsorbed back into the blood Step 3: Tubular secretion Before filtrate leaves the body as urine, a final adjustment to the blood composition is made. These tubular secretions rid the body of toxic compounds to regulate blood pH . Ureter Slender hollow tube transporting urine formed by the kidney to the urinary bladder . Urinary bladder Hollow, muscular organ that is a storage reservoir for urine. Located in the pelvis behind the pubic symphysis. Urethra Narrow tube that transports urine from the urinary bladder out of the body during urination. Urine Concentrated dissolved wastes. filtrate from the kidneys that is 96% water and 4% Micturition (AKA: voiding) The act of urination. Fluid balance Antidiuretic hormone (secreted by the pituitary) and aldosterone (produced in the adrenal cortex) regulate the balance of water in the body. Fluid imbalance Dehydration can occur when water is unavailable or with severe diarrhea or vomiting and excessive sweating. Turgor Skin resiliency Edema Abnormal , which decreases during dehydration. accumulation of fluids in body tissue YouTube Link Digestive System “Be careful about reading health books. You may die of a misprint.” –Mark Twain Introduction People in high-stress or high-responsibility positions are more likely than others to have problems with ulcers, heartburn, colitis, irritable bowel syndrome, and constipation because of frequent disruption of the digestive process. Introduction The digestive system is primarily a long and glands. tube with accessory organs Gastrointenstinal tract (AKA: G.I. tract or alimentary canal) Muscular passageway of the digestive system. Leads from the mouth to the anus. Anatomy Gastrointestinal Tract: Oral cavity Pharynx Esophagus Stomach Small intestine Large intestine Accessory Organs: Salivary glands Pancreas Liver Gallbladder Anatomy Physiology Ingestion Digestion Mechanical digestion Chemical digestion Absorption Defecation Physiology Ingestion Process of orally taking materials into the body (eating and drinking). Physiology Digestion Series of mechanical and chemical processes that occur as food is broken down into simple molecules. Physiology Digestion Mechanical digestion Digestive process that includes chewing, churning in the stomach, and peristalsis. Physiology Digestion Mechanical digestion Peristalsis Wave-like contractions that mix and propel materials in the gastrointestinal tract. Physiology Digestion Chemical digestion More significant of the two digestive processes. Includes the effects of acids, bases, and enzymes that are released the digestive tract in response to food. into Physiology Absorption Process by which simple molecules from the digestive tract are moved into the bloodstream or lymph vessels and then into the body's cells. Physiology Defecation Process of eliminating material from the body. indigestible or unabsorbed Peritoneum Peritoneum Serous membrane of the abdominal cavity that surrounds the organs within it. Oral Cavity Oral cavity (AKA: mouth) First portion of the gastrointestinal tract where food is masticated, chemically broken down, and mixed with saliva. Oral Cavity Mastication Chewing. Saliva Fluid secreted by salivary and mucous glands in the mouth. Contains digestive enzymes that break down lipids and carbohydrates. Oral Cavity Bolus Soft ball of chewed food. Oral Cavity Tongue Large, strong muscle that mixes food particles with and directs the bolus towards the back of the throat. saliva . Teeth Accessory structures used to bite off and mechanically break up larger pieces of food into smaller ones that can be swallowed. Oral Cavity Salivary glands Three paired glands that secrete saliva into the oral cavity. Examples: submandibular, sublingual, and parotid. Enzyme A catalyst that accelerates chemical reactions. Esophagus Esophagus Muscular tube that connects the pharynx to the stomach . Esophagus Sphincter Ring of muscle that remains contracted or closed until it is triggered to relax and open. Examples: upper esophageal, lower esophageal, pyloric, iliocecal, and anal. Stomach Stomach Organ that is an enlargement of the gastrointestinal tract, bound at both ends by sphincters. Breaks bolus of food down into chyme. Secretes the digestive enzyme that breaks down proteins. Stomach Chyme Semi-liquid substance created by churning bolus and gastric juices in the stomach. Stomach Gastrin Hormone secreted by the stomach that initiates the production and secretion of gastric juices and stimulates bile and pancreatic enzyme emissions into the small intestines. Stomach Gastric juices Fluid secreted by the walls of the stomach. Hydrochloric acid, enzymes, mucus, and water. Small Intestine Small intestine (AKA: small bowel) Longest section of the G.I. tract. Situated in the central abdomen. Consists of the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. 90% of nutrient absorption occurs here. Small Intestine Small intestine (AKA: small bowel) Plicae circulares Villi Microvilli Lacteals Small Intestine Plicae circulares Circular folds on the inside walls of the small intestine. Small Intestine Villi Finger -like projections on the plicae circulares of the small intestine that house blood and lymph capillaries. Small Intestine Microvilli Microscopic protrusions from cellular membrane of villi. Small Intestine Lacteals Lymph capillaries within villi of the small intestine that assist in the absorption of fat . Small Intestine Duodenum First portion of the small intestine. Jejunum Intermediate portion of the small intestine. Ileum Final portion of the small intestine. Small Intestine Mesentery Section of the peritoneum. Consists of lesser and greater omenta. Large Intestine Large intestine (AKA: colon) Final section of the gastrointestinal tract through which undigested and unabsorbed food moves before the body eliminates it. Also forms and stores feces until defecation. Consists of: cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, and rectum. Large Intestine Cecum Small, sac-like structure that is the first section of the large intestine. Large Intestine Ascending colon The portion of the large intestine that extends from the cecum to the hepatic flexure. Large Intestine Transverse colon The horizontal portion of the large intestine between the hepatic flexure and splenic flexure. Large Intestine Descending colon The portion of the colon that extends from the splenic flexure to the sigmoid flexure. Large Intestine Sigmoid colon The S-shaped part of the colon in between the sigmoid flexure and the rectum. Large Intestine Rectum Section of the large intestine between the sigmoid colon and the anal canal. Large Intestine Defecation Process of eliminating indigestible or unabsorbed material from the body. Accessory Organs Liver Organ located in the upper right quadrant of the abdominal cavity. Largest and most complex internal organ. Filters toxins, produces bile, metabolizes nutrients, and produces plasma proteins. Accessory Organs Bile Emulsifies fat. Produced in the liver and stored in the gallbladder. Accessory Organs Gallbladder Hollow organ located on the inferior surface of the liver. Stores bile. Accessory Organs Pancreas Organ located inferior to the stomach. Both an endocrine gland that secretes insulin and glucagon, and an exocrine gland that secretes enzymes that break down proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. Digestive and Urinary Pathology Review Celiac Disease Celiac disease Inflammatory response to the consumption of gluten. o Destroys intestinal villi and limits absorption of ingested nutrients. Dermatitis herpetiformis Painful, itchy rash due to celiac disease. Esophageal Cancer Esophageal cancer Growth of malignant cells in the esophagus. Gastroenteritis Gastroenteritis Inflammation of the G.I. tract, specifically the stomach or small intestine. GERD Gastroesophageal reflux disease (AKA: GERD) Chronic splashing of acidic stomach secretions into the unprotected esophagus. Peptic Ulcers Peptic ulcer Sores of the inner surfaces of the esophagus, stomach, or duodenum that do not heal normally and remain open and vulnerable to infection. . Stomach Cancer Stomach cancer Growth of malignant tumors in the stomach that may metastasize directly to other abdominal organs, or through lymph or blood flow to distant places in the body. Colorectal Cancer Colorectal cancer Development of malignant tumors in the colon or rectum that can block the bowel and/or metastasize to other organs. Diverticular Disease Diverticular disease Combination of diverticulosis and diverticulitis. Irritable Bowel Syndrome Irritable bowel syndrome (AKA: IBS) Collection of signs and symptoms that indicate a problem with colon function, and are aggravated by stress and diet. Cirrhosis Cirrhosis Disorganization and dysfunction of liver cells that results in many of them being replaced or crowded out by scar tissue. Often the final stage of chronic or acute liver disease. Gallstones Gallstones Crystallized formations of cholesterol or bile pigments in the gallbladder. Size ranges from as small as a grain of sand to as large as a golf ball. Hepatitis Hepatitis Inflammation of the liver, but not always due to viral infection. Hepatitis A Short, acute infection of the liver that usually causes no long-lasting damage. One exposure creates lifelong immunity. Hepatitis B Liver infection spread through exposure to intimate fluids such as blood, semen, breast milk, or vaginal secretions. Communicable through indirect blood-to-blood contact with a contaminated surface. Hepatitis C Called a “silent epidemic”, this contagious infection damages the liver so slowly that symptoms may not develop until decades after exposure. Liver Cancer Liver cancer Growth of malignant cells in the liver. Pancreatic Cancer Pancreatic cancer Growth of malignant cells in the pancreas that is aggressive, painful, and terminal. Pancreatitis Pancreatitis Inflammation of the pancreas. Candidiasis Candidiasis Higher than normal levels of the fungus C. albicans in the G.I. tract resulting in the disruption of normal function of the digestive system and other systems in the body. Urinary Pathology! Kidney Stones Kidney stones (AKA: renal calculi or nephrolithiasis) Solid deposits of crystalline substances in the kidney, usually due to inadequate fluid intake. Polycystic Kidney Disease Polycystic kidney disease Genetic disorder leading to the formation of multiple cysts in the kidney and other organs. These cysts interfere with normal organ function and often lead to renal failure and the need for kidney transplant. Pyelonephritis Pyelonephritis Infection of the nephrons and/or renal pelvis of the kidney. Renal Cancer Renal cancer Growth of malignant cells in the kidney. Renal Failure Renal Failure Inability of the kidneys to function at a normal level. Bladder Cancer Bladder cancer Growth of malignant cells in the urinary bladder. Interstitial Cystitis Interstitial cystitis Chronic inflammation of the bladder, involving pain, scar tissue, stiffening, decreased capacity, pinpoint hemorrhage, and sometimes ulcers in the bladder walls. UTI Urinary tract infection Infection caused by bacteria that live harmlessly in the digestive tract finding their way into the urinary tract.