Download Introduction to Syntax Level 1 Course

Introduction to English Syntax
Level 1 Course
Ron Kuzar
Department of English Language and Literature
University of Haifa
Chapter 8
Major Sentence Patterns:
Extraposition Sentence
Two More Word Classes
• Before we address the extraposition
sentence pattern, we need to define two
additional word classes:
– The infinitive (Inf),
– The gerund (Gd).
• Both express abstract notions of the verb,
and in many cases they are syntactically
interchangeable.
• The semantic and conceptual differences
between them will not concern us here,
only their syntactic behavior.
The Infinitive (Inf)
• The infinitive is formed by putting to before the
bare verb form: to write, to eat, etc.
• The infinitive is sensitive to aspect:
– Progressive:to be eating, to be writing.
– Perfect:
to have eaten, to have written.
– Perf. Prog.: to have been eating,
to have been writing.
• And it may be passivized:
– to be eaten, to have been written.
The Infinitive Phrase (InfP)
• The InfP contains a predicate and other
components associated with it (complements
and adjuncts). It does not contain a subject.
• Here are some verbal InfP:
– To eat a banana, to be writing a book,
to have arrived, to rain.
• Here are some copular InfP. Copular InfPs
contain the copula or linking verb and the
predicate NP, AP, or PP):
– To be a woman, to be well, to be on the roof,
to sound hungry, to look pretty.
Terminological Note
• Some linguists view the InfP as optionally
having a subject, preceded by for:
– (For me) to eat bananas.
– (For the cat) to be on the roof.
– (for it) to rain.
• For reasons that cannot be gone into here,
we will view this For-phrase in the
extraposition pattern as part of the
subordinating clause:


– It’s good for him [to go],
– It’s good [for him to go].
Terminological Note
• Infinitive phrase or infinitive clause?
• Linguists who view the InfP as containing an
optional subject, tend to call it an infinite
(infinitival) clause, because it looks to them
more like a full sentence.
• Since we do not include the subject in the Inf.
construction, we prefer the term phrase,
comparing it to a VP, not to the full clause.
Some Syntactic Positions of InfP
• The InfP may serve as Subj. or Obj.:
– To read books makes me happy.
– To read books is a good habit.
– I hope to read one book every week.
– I hope for him to win this game.
• It may serve as predicate of a Cop sentence:
– My aim is to read one book every week.
– To live is to love.
• It may serve as an adjunct purpose phrase:
– I do it (in order) to please my parents.
The Gerund (Gd)
• The Gerund (Gd) has the –ing ending:
– Going, finding, living, etc.
• The gerund is sensitive to perfect aspect:
– Having gone, having found, having lived.
– Not having lived there is something I hope to rectify.
• The gerund is sensitive to passivization:
– Being shot, being written, being found.
– Being shot is a quicker way to die than being mauled
by a lion.
Some Syntactic Positions of GdP
• The GdP may serve as Subj., Obj.,
Obl., and PP adjunct.
• Subject:
– Writing letters annoys me.
• Direct Object:
– I hate writing letters.
• Oblique Object:
– I usually refrain from writing letters.
• PP adjunct:
– I could live without writing letters.
Terminological Note
• Since the InfP and GdP are nominalized and
occupy mostly NP positions, they are called
nominals.
• Another form of nominalization is the
packaging of a sentence in a subordinate
that-clause. It also often appears in NP
positions:
– I have found my keys.
– I have found that I have water rights on this ditch.
Nominals in Valency
• The valency of a predicate may specify a
nominal as an argument, instead of an NP.
NP[person] find
I
I
found
found
NP/That-Clause
my keys.
that I had water rights on this ditch.
NP[person] want
NP/InfP
I
I
soup.
to help them.
want
wanted
Extraposition (XP) sentences
• Examples: Group One:
– It could be great to see you all in one place.
– It is fun being in the same decade with you.
– it is in order that we acknowledge their input.
– It leaves me breathless to think about it.
• Examples: Group Two:
– Yesterday, it was reported that they have been
denied a filming permit in the shopping district.
– It is well known that citric acid triggers coughing.
– It has been rumored that she is recording a new
album.
It is an expletive
• The initial element it is an expletive:
• It cannot be replaced with this.
– *This could be great to see you all in one place.
• It cannot be stressed.
– *IT could be great to see you all in one place.
• It cannot be asked about:
– *What could be great to see you all in one place?
Caveat
• Without the nominal, it must be understood as
a pronoun referring back to a real thing.
• It can be replaced with this.
– Lets go to the pool. It/this could be great.
• It can be stressed.
– IT could be great.
• It can be asked about:
– What could be great?
The formula of
the XP sentence Pattern
• Based on the example above, the formula has
the following form (not final; to be updated)
• Note: V and Cop are represented separately:
It
It
(M)
(M)
Cop
V
N/A/P
Nominal
Nominal
• The specific valency of each predicate
determines which nominal is to be used.
The Evaluative Sub-Pattern
• In the evaluative sub-pattern, the
predicate is evaluative, and the nominal
represents the situation evaluated:
It
(M)
V
Nominal
It
may
pay
to go.
It
(M)
Cop N/A/P
It would be
Nominal
good
to go.
Evaluative
predicate
Evaluated
situation
Terminological Note
• Evaluative means modal. However, modal is
reserved in English for a verbal word class, so
using the term separately for a class and a
function might be confusing.
• Modality/evaluation has to do with the
assessment of a situation as possible,
necessary, advisable, preferable, costincurring, and some other similar assessment:
– It is possible/necessary/advisable/preferable to do
this.
– It takes an hour/costs a dollar to do this.
The Quotative Sub-Pattern
• In the quotative sub-pattern, the predicate
is quotative, and the nominal represents
the report quoted:
It
(M)
V
Nominal
It
has been
decided
to go.
It
(M)
It has
Cop N/A/P
Nominal
been in the stars
that we go.
Quotative
predicate
Quoted
report
Terminological Note
• The predicate may be active or passive:
– It follows that…
– It has been announced that…
• In either case, the quotation is anonymous in
this pattern by definition
(though the source can be restored in an adjunct by-phrase).
– It has been announced by the government that…
• This is, of course, not the case with active V
sentences, such as:
– The Secretary of State announced that…
One or Two Meanings
in the XP Pattern?
• The two sub-patterns have the same form.
• Supposedly, they have two distinct meanings.
• But there are some borderline cases:
– It is well established that artichokes contain iron.
• Is this the speaker's evaluation of the situation
or the speaker's quotation of the report?
• Could we, perhaps, include quotation in
evaluation?
• Isn’t there always a measure of estrangement
in anonymous quotation?
Adding another Component
• Let us have a look at the following sentences:
• Evaluative:
– It is legal for her to raise my rent.
– It is hard on him to change schools every year.
– It annoys them that I refuse to reveal my age.
• Quotative:
– It has been explained to the patient that we will
only disclose relevant information.
– It was suggested to me to use the IP address of
the mail server.
– it suddenly dawned on me that the summer was
over.
The Affectee
• The added component is the entity affected by
the evaluation or the quotation.
• Typically it is human (as in the examples above).
– Exceptions do exist:
• It is best for the soup to be strained through a fine
mesh strainer.
• We call it the affectee.
Updated Formula for XP
• With the affectee added, the formula of the XP
sentence pattern is as follows:
It
(M)
It
has been
It
(M)
It has
[VPV
NP/PP]
suggested to me
Nominal
to go.
Cop [NP/AP/PP N/A/P
PP]
been
for her to go.
legal
Nominal
That May be Omitted
• Under certain circumstances the word that
may be omitted in the that-clause.
• Don't let this mislead you in identifying the
pattern:
– It's a good thing [that] you're not an octopus.
– Well, it's clear [that] we're getting nowhere.
Is the Nominal a Subj./Obj.?
It has been giving me much trouble to do this right.
• The VP has a double object: oblique “me” and
direct “much trouble”. Now, verbs don’t have
more than 2 objects. Hence, the nominal
cannot be an object.
• Yet, it is not a straightforward subject either,
since there is a subject: the expletive.
• Furthermore, nominals do not carry case, and
cannot be replaced and tested by case
carrying pronouns.
Sample Question
• Identify the XP sentences in the passage and
classify them into their two sub-patterns:
It's often been said that the best way to get in the
game industry is through interviews. It requires the
least amount of experience. After some failures, I
realized my passion for game design wasn't enough
to convince anyone to hire me. It didn't matter that I
was a CS grad. It became obvious I needed to have
a real game to show. It took me a couple of months
to put one together, but then interviewers started
paying attention to me. It was fascinating to see their
reactions. It was absolutely fascinating.
Answer
• XP Quotative:
– It's often been said that the best way to get in the
game industry is through interviews.
• NOT XP:
– It requires the least amount of experience.
• XP Evaluative:
– It didn't matter that I was a CS grad.
• XP Quotative (that omitted):
– It became obvious I needed to have a real game
to show.
Answer Continued
• XP Evaluative:
– It took me a couple of months to put one together.
• XP Evaluative:
– It was fascinating to see their reactions.
• NOT XP:
– It was absolutely fascinating.
Homework
• Identify the XP sentences in the following
sentences and classify them into their two
sub-patterns (evaluative and quotative):
– It has come to my attention that students have
not been aware of the regulations.
– I have been informed that the event will take
place after all.
– It is unfortunate and certainly not my fault.
– It might be best to just write to her again.
– It’ll cost you a fortune to fix it.
[Continued on next slide]
[Homework continued]
– It could take days to restore water supplies.
– It is useful to all members of the department.
– It sounds awful to say this, but I will anyway.
– It's great for us to end the weekend that way.
– It’s so good you came today.
– It’s been fun spending these days with you.
– This is beneficial for the whole community that
lives here.
– It looks useful to me to download this program.
– It has been decided, and that’s it!