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Hierarchy of Life Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Chapter 1 An Introduction to Biology Key Concepts: 1.1 Principles of Biology and the Levels of Biological Organization 1.2 Unity and Diversity of Life 2 1.1 Principles of Biology Biology: the scientific study of living things. 1. Cells are the simplest units of life 2. Living organisms use energy 3. Living organisms interact with their environment 3 Principles of Biology 4. Living organisms maintain homeostasis 5. Living organisms grow and develop 6. The genetic material provides a blueprint for reproduction 4 Principles of Biology 7. Populations of organisms evolve from one generation to the next 8. All species (past and present) are related by an evolutionary history 9. Structure determines function 5 Principles of Biology 10. New properties of life emerge from complex interactions 11. Biology is an experimental science 12. Biology affects our society 6 Levels of Biological Organization Molecules and 1 Atoms 2 macromolecules 3 5 6 4 Organs Cells Tissues Organism 10 Biosphere 7 Population 9 8 Ecosystem Community 7 1.2 Unity and Diversity of Life Unity All life displays a common set of characteristics United by a shared evolutionary history Diversity Life has a diversity of form in diverse environments 8 Evolutionary History Life began on Earth as primitive cells between 3.5 - 4 billion years ago (bya) Those primitive cells underwent evolutionary changes to give rise to the species of today Evolutionary history helps us understand the structure and function of an organism 9 Evolutionary change involves modifications of pre-existing characteristics Structures may be modified to serve new purposes Example: Walking limbs were modified into a dolphin’s flipper or a bat’s wing 10 Two Mechanisms of Evolutionary Change 1. Vertical descent with modification Progression of changes in a lineage New species evolve from pre-existing species by the accumulation of mutations Natural selection takes advantage of beneficial mutations 11 Vertical Evolution: The Horse Lineage 0 Hippidium and other genera Equus 5 Nannippus Styohipparion Hipparion Neohipparion Pliohippus 10 Sinohippus Megahippus Calippus Millions of years ago (mya) Archaeohippus 20 Anchitherium Merychippus Hypohippus Parahippus Miohippus Mesohippus 40 Paleotherium Epihippus Propalaeotherium Pachynolophus 55 Hyracotherium Orohippus 12 2. Horizontal gene transfer Genetic exchange between different species Relatively rare Genes that confer antibiotic resistance are sometimes transferred between different bacteria species 13 Horizontal Gene Transfer: Antibiotic Resistance Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. DNA DNA Antibioticresistance gene Antibioticresistance gene from E. coli Horizontal gene transfer to another species Bacterial species such as Escherichia coli Bacterial species such as Streptococcus pneumoniae 14 Tree or web of life? Horizontal gene transfer was an important part of the process that gave rise to modern species Tree of life focuses on vertical evolution The tree of life is predictive Placement of a new species on the tree of life immediately informs us about its biology Understanding relationships among species allows biologists to make predictions about species that have not yet been studied Web of life includes the contribution of horizontal gene transfer 15 Web of Life: Vertical Evolution and Horizontal Gene Transfer Bacteria Archaea Eukarya Fungi Animals Plants Protists KEY Vertical evolution Horizontal gene transfer Common ancestral community of primitive cells 16 Classification Taxonomy is the grouping of species based on common ancestry Three domains of life Bacteria - unicellular prokaryote Archaea - unicellular prokaryote Eukarya - unicellular and multicellular eukaryotes Complex cells with a nucleus and organelles Four kingdoms: Protista, Plantae, Fungi, and Animalia 17 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Domain Bacteria: Mostly unicellular prokaryotes that inhabit many diverse environments on Earth Domain Archaea: Unicellular prokaryotes that often live in extreme environments, such as hot springs © Dr. David M. Phillips/Visuals Unlimited 18 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Protists Plants Fungi Animals 1: © Dr. Dennis Kunkel/ Visuals Unlimited; 2: © Kent Foster/Photo Researchers; 3: © Carl Schmidt-uchs/Photo Researchers; 4: © Fritz Polking/Visuals Unlimited Domain Eukarya: Unicellular and multicellular organisms having cells with internal compartments that serve various functions Classification A species is placed into progressively smaller groups that are more closely related Emphasizes the unity and diversity of different species Example: Clownfish 20 Taxonomic group Clown anemonefish is found in Approximate time when the common ancestor for this group arose Approximate number of modern species in this group Domain Eukarya 2,000 mya > 5,000,000 Kingdom Animalia 600 mya > 1,000,000 Phylum Chordata 525 mya 50,000 Class Actinopterygii 420 mya 30,000 Order Perciformes 80 mya 7,000 Family Pomacentridae ~ 40 mya 360 Genus Amphiprion ~ 9 mya 28 Species ocellaris > 3 mya 1 Examples 21 Binomial nomenclature Each species has a unique scientific name Genus name capitalized Species Both descriptor is not capitalized names are italicized Amphiprion ocellaris = Clownfish 22 Genomes and Proteomes Genome - the complete genetic makeup of an organism Genomics - techniques used to analyze DNA sequences Comparison Proteome - the complete complement of proteins of an organism Proteomics - Comparison of proteomes of different species Techniques of genomes of different species used to analyze the proteins of a species The study of genomes and proteomes provides an evolutionary foundation for our understanding of biology Fundamental to understanding an organisms characteristics 23 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. In eukaryotes, most of the genome is contained within chromosomes that are located in the cell nucleus Gene (a) The genome Most genes encode mRNAs that contain the information to make proteins Cytoplasm Chromosome Chromosome DNA Cell signaling: Proteins are needed for cell signaling with other cells and with the environment Sets Sets of of chromosomes chromosomes Nucleus Nucleus Cytoskeleton: Proteins are involved in cell shape and movement Cell organization: Proteins organize the components within cells Enzymes: Proteins function as enzymes to synthesize and break down cellular molecules and macromolecules Transport proteins: Proteins facilitate the uptake and export of substances Extracellular fluid (b) The proteome Extracellular proteins: Proteins hold cells together in tissues 24