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Primatology Rothschild, J Primatol 2015, 4:1 http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2167-6801.1000e130 Editorial Open Access Emerging infectious diseases and Primate Zoonoses Bruce Rothschild1,2* 1Northeast 2Carnegie Ohio Medical University, Rootstown, OH 44272, USA Museum, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA *Corresponding author: Bruce Rothschild, Professor of Medicine, Carnegie Museum, 4400 Forbes Ave, Pittsburgh, PA 15273, USA, Tel: 785-615-1523; E-mail: [email protected] Rec date: April 16, 2015, Acc date: April 18, 2015, Pub date: May 08, 2015 Copyright: © 2015 Rothschild B. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. Editorial Most discussions of zoonoses relate to human acquisition of disease [1-5]. This is exemplified by attribution of the origin of AIDS to various primates [6-8]. Other viruses of concern for transmission from primates to humans include retroviruses [e.g., lentivirus and simian immunodeficiency virus], herpesviruses [e.g., Herpes simplex, Varicella, cytomegalic virus, Herpes simiae, measles, pox viruses [e.g., monkeypox , varicella], rabies, poliovirus, hepatitis A, B and E, lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus, Marburg, Ebola, parainfluenza, mumps, respiratory syncytial virus, coxsackie virus, rhinovirus, Simian Pathogen virus 40 and West Nile virus (Table 1). Ebola outbreaks have been recognized in gorilla and chimpanzee [9]; Marburg virus, in rhesus [Macaca mulatta], cynomolgus monkeys [Macaca fascicularis], African green monkeys [Cercopithecus aethiops] and baboons [Papio] [9]; respiratory syncytial virus, in chimpanzees [10]; influenza, in chimpanzee, bonobo and gorilla [10]; measles, in gorilla [10]; Herpesvirus type 1 and yellow fever, in New World monkeys [10]; and Molloscum contagium, in chimpanzees [10]. Twenty-five percent of macaques are infected with Herpes B. Citation Bacteria Camplyobacter 24 Escherichia Salmonella 24 Shigella 24 Mycobacterium tuberculosis Virus Herpes simplex 1 Influenza A Measles Metapneumovirus Rotovirus Parasites Cryptosporidium Encephalitozoon Giardia Isospora Stronglyoides Trichuris Table 1: Human to animal disease transmission in the wild The epidemic of tuberculosis in zoologic park primates traced to directed expectoration by visitors emphasizes that zoonotic diseases J Primatol ISSN:2167-6801 JPMT, an open access journal represent a two-way street. “Pathogen pollution,” the process of human introduction of a foreign disease into a new locality [11,12], is Volume 4 • Issue 1 • 1000e130 Citation: Rothschild B (2015) Emerging infectious diseases and Primate Zoonoses . J Primatol 4: e130. doi:10.4172/2167-6801.1000e130 Page 2 of 4 becoming more recognized as an animal health issue [13-17]. Ecotourism and increased contacts with humans are responsible for transmission to primates not only of tuberculosis, but also polio, influenza, measles, yellow fever, malaria, filiariasis and dracunculiasis (Table 2) [18-20]. Most likely sources of these infections are park personnel and researchers [10]. Tourists are difficult to verify, as sources, because diseases incubating in short term visitors often Pathogen become apparent only after they leave. This compromises recognition of that source of infection. A major concern relates to unvaccinated tourists. How much do we actually know about disease load and presence in primates? The great apes are perhaps the best studied [14], but sampling has been quite uneven. It has been more intensive in Africa, less in Asia and South America [14,16]. Citation Bacteria Bacillus anthracis [25,26] Bartonella quintana [10] Campylobacter jejunii [24] Escherichia coli [10] Helobacter [10] Pasturella multocida [10] Salmonella [24] Shigella [24] Streptococcus pneumonae [10] Yersinia pseudotuberculosis [27] Mycobacterium tuberculosis [10] Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare [26,28] Mycobacterium bovis [29] Actinomycetes [10] Fungi [10] Candida albicans [10] Coccidiomycosis [10] Cryptococcus [10 Cryptosporidium parvum [24] Dermatophilus congolensis [10] Nocardia [10] Trichophyton mentagrophytes [10] Rickettsia [22] Anaplasmosis [22] Babesosis [22,30] Colorado tick fever [22] Erhlichiosis [22] Q fever [22] Rocky Mountain spotted fever [22] Tick borne encephalitis [22] Tularemia [22] J Primatol ISSN:2167-6801 JPMT, an open access journal Volume 4 • Issue 1 • 1000e130 Citation: Rothschild B (2015) Emerging infectious diseases and Primate Zoonoses . J Primatol 4: e130. doi:10.4172/2167-6801.1000e130 Page 3 of 4 Typhus [22] Virus Adenoviruses Herpes B [31,32] Influenza [21,33] Measles [21,34] Metapneumovirus Polio [21,10] Varicella [35] Yellow fever [21,10] Prion [36] Parasites Amoebiasis Cryptosporidium Dracunculiasis [10,21] Encephalitozoon intestinalis [24] Filiariasis [21,10] Giardia [24] Hymenolepsis nana [10] Leishmaniasis Plasmodian [21,10] Nematodes Schistosoma mansoni [10] Strongyloides [10] Taenia [37] Trypanosoma cruzi [38] Scabes [21,10] Table 2: Human-derived primate zoonoses Responsible organisms derive from all infectious disease categories: Bacterial, fungal, rickettsial, viral, parasitic and even prions [10,21,22] (Table 2). Escherichia coli outbreaks have been observed in chimpanzees; Campylobacter and Salmonella in gorillas; Streptococcus pneumonae and Pasturella multocida in chimpanzees]; Schistosoma mansoni in olive baboons and scabies in gorillas [10]. Zoonoses have direct adverse effects on primates beyond the actual disease burden of morbidity and mortality. Reproductive productivity is also impacted. So, what to do? Some basic precautions appear reasonable. Increased separations of human and non-human primates, assurance of the health and vaccination status of all humans who do interact are important. Quarantine, testing for hepatitis B core and surface antigens, Mantoux test for tuberculosis and fecal culture, examination of stools for ova and parasites might be considered. J Primatol ISSN:2167-6801 JPMT, an open access journal Minimizing pathogen transmission at ecotourism sites [23] includes assuring adequate sanitation [e.g., burying human waste sufficiently deep as not to contaminate the environment or be easily accessible to “curious” foraging]. We need to treat our generic cousins with the same respect we should be according our conspecifics. Visit, but know when to leave. References 1. 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